The subgroups were defined based on: length of treatment prior to recruitment, follow-up method (telephone/face-to-face/patient completed), length of follow-up (≤ 7 months/ > 7 months) (the intention was to follow-up patients between 6 and 7 months but some took longer), and number of training sessions pharmacists attended

(less than four sessions, check details and four sessions). Data analysis was done on an intention-to-treat (ITT) basis, with a secondary per-protocol analyses based on actual intervention delivery. For the ITT analysis, imputation was used to estimate missing treatment satisfaction, physical and psychological health scores. All other missing outcomes were excluded from analyses. The denominators in each group vary depending on whether ITT or per-protocol analysis click here was used. In total, 542 patients were randomised (295 intervention, 247 control). Baseline interviews were completed for all patients recruited and follow-up interviews

were completed for 335 (62%) (182 intervention, 153 control) patients (Figure 1). No differences in the baseline demographics between groups were seen (Table 1). In total, 121 patients had left their original pharmacy during the study and the retention status of 65 patients was determined. Intervention n = 295 Control n = 247 A total of 87 pharmacies (95 pharmacists) was contacted, of which 76 (84 pharmacists) recruited patients into the study. Four intervention pharmacies moved to the control group as they were not able to attend the training sessions and three control pharmacists moved to the intervention group to attend the training sessions. Pharmacist attendance rate for all four training sessions ranged from 60–80% across the six areas. Scores on the BECCI range from 10–41, with a mean of 30.3. The maximum

possible score is 44. The median score overall was 32 (interquartile range 24, 38), indicating good use of the technique. There Amino acid was a reduction in both groups in the proportion of patients using illicit heroin in the last 30 days (16% decrease from 88 patients (48.4%) at baseline to 59 (32.4%) at follow-up for intervention patients and 19% decrease from 77 patients (50.3%) to 48 (31.4%) in controls), but this was not significant between groups (P = 0.83, Table 2). Within both groups, there was a significant reduction in the median number of days of illicit heroin use between baseline and follow-up (both P < 0.001). Sub-group analysis of illicit heroin use by length of time in treatment, length of follow-up and method of follow-up revealed no significant between-group differences (Table 2). Intervention n = 182 Control n = 153 Intervention n = 182 Control n = 153 Table 3 shows a reduction in the proportion who used other illicit drugs in both groups, between baseline and follow-up, although this did not reach statistical significance (P = 0.13 and P = 0.06 in the intervention and control group respectively).

However, no direct functional studies of yeeZ have been undertaken until now. Based on the results of the fluorescence staining with acridine orange, the bacterial cells of yeeZ mutant were multinucleate (Fig. 4e), and the bacterial cell walls were intact, as revealed

by electron microscopy (Fig. 4f). Hydrophilicity of the mutant decreased compared with the wild type (Fig. S2) and the insertional mutation in yeeZ gene also resulted in dramatic low growth rate (Fig. S3). These features suggest that the function of yeeZ gene may be associated with bacterial cell division. However, the downstream gene, CKO_00769, which encodes a putative LysR-type transcriptional regulator, overlaps in sequence with the yeeZ gene. So the possibility that the novel features of CF204 Bortezomib in vivo selleck screening library may be due to the polar effect of transposon on the expression of the CKO_00769 must be considered. In liquid media, the mutant bacteria were motile but less active than the

wild type even though the flagellin level of the yeeZ mutant was comparable to that of the wild type (Fig. 2b and Video S5). Cell elongation has been previously suggested as a key factor for swarming process. Some swarming null mutants and crippled mutants of P. mirabilis have been identified previously as defective in swarming cell elongation (Belas et al., 1991). However, in C. freundii, our results indicated that an elongated shape was not always advantageous for swarming motility. Three of the new swarming-related genetic loci were found to be involved in different metabolic pathways, and the mutation of these genes resulted in a moderately defective swarming (Fig. 3j–l). CKO_03941 encodes a putative polyketide cyclase/dehydrase family protein that has an unclear function. Its role in swarming motility has yet to be determined. The glgC gene encodes an ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase, which catalyzes the first rate-limiting step in glycogen biosynthesis. Glycogen is widespread in enteric genera as a major energy storage

compound. Glycogen reserves are important for biofilm formation, virulence in Salmonella enteritidis Cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase (Bonafonte et al., 2000), and sporulation in Clostridium and Bacillus (Preiss, 1984). Based on our results, the growth rate of the glgC mutant was less than that of the parent strain (Fig. S3). The growth rate change may be reflected in the defective swarming. The ttrA gene encodes tetrathionate reductase subunit A. The ability to respire tetrathionate is a characteristic of certain genera of Enterobacteriaceae, including Citrobacter, Salmonella, and Proteus (Hensel et al., 1999). Although no exogenous tetrathionate was added to the swarming media used in the study, the protein digests in the complex media were shown to contain thiosulfate, which was readily oxidized to tetrathionate (Barrett & Clark, 1987).

e. acquire another function when surface-associated (Jeffery, 2009), remains unclear. Current research is ongoing in our lab to determine its precise role on the surface of lactobacilli. In conclusion, the data presented here show that NTD from L. fermentum can be added to a growing list of enzymes that one would expect to see only in the cytoplasm, but which have been detected on the cell surface (Granato et al., 2004). It is not known how these anchorless proteins cross the

cytoplasmic membrane. They are thought to bind to the cell surface through non-covalent interactions and, thus, can be extracted by buffers or released into the culture medium. To our knowledge, we are the first to confirm experimentally the localization of an essential deoxynucleoside buy BGB324 catabolic enzyme that has dual location both

in the cytoplasm and on the surface in L. fermentum. The results reported here may serve as the basis for further work to characterize the surface-associated NTD, identify the specific roles of surface-associated NTDs small molecule library screening in nucleoside metabolism or the extracellular environment, and also determine the surface-association mechanisms of the anchorless proteins. We express our gratitude to Professor Jan Martinussen (Center for Systems Microbiology, Department of Systems Biology, Technical University of Denmark) and the anonymous reviewers for their insightful suggestions, and to Professor Li Ying (Center of Biomedical Analysis, Tsinghua STK38 University) for her excellent technical assistance. This work was supported by the National Science Foundation for Fostering Talents in Basic Research of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. J1030622),

National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 20876088), and the National High Technology Research and Development Program of China (2010AA09Z405). The nucleotide sequence reported in this paper has been submitted to the GenBank with accession number JF331655. “
“Insertion sequences (IS) are important drivers of bacterial evolution. Here, we report a previously undescribed IS element (ISPst4) in Pseudomonas stutzeri, and its unusual interaction with plasmids introduced into this species. Transformation of the pUC19 derivative plasmid pUS23 into P. stutzeri yielded ampicillin-resistant transformants in P. stutzeri, but these grew very poorly. Plasmids recovered from the transformants frequently contained insertions of the IS elements ISPst4 and ISPst5. Hybridisation analysis showed that these two IS elements were common in P. stutzeri strains, but were not found in other pseudomonads. Insertions of ISPst4 in pUS23 were found predominantly between bla and oriV, and plasmids with this type of insertion were capable of robust replication in P. stutzeri, unlike pUS23.

e. acquire another function when surface-associated (Jeffery, 2009), remains unclear. Current research is ongoing in our lab to determine its precise role on the surface of lactobacilli. In conclusion, the data presented here show that NTD from L. fermentum can be added to a growing list of enzymes that one would expect to see only in the cytoplasm, but which have been detected on the cell surface (Granato et al., 2004). It is not known how these anchorless proteins cross the

cytoplasmic membrane. They are thought to bind to the cell surface through non-covalent interactions and, thus, can be extracted by buffers or released into the culture medium. To our knowledge, we are the first to confirm experimentally the localization of an essential deoxynucleoside LBH589 molecular weight catabolic enzyme that has dual location both

in the cytoplasm and on the surface in L. fermentum. The results reported here may serve as the basis for further work to characterize the surface-associated NTD, identify the specific roles of surface-associated NTDs see more in nucleoside metabolism or the extracellular environment, and also determine the surface-association mechanisms of the anchorless proteins. We express our gratitude to Professor Jan Martinussen (Center for Systems Microbiology, Department of Systems Biology, Technical University of Denmark) and the anonymous reviewers for their insightful suggestions, and to Professor Li Ying (Center of Biomedical Analysis, Tsinghua GBA3 University) for her excellent technical assistance. This work was supported by the National Science Foundation for Fostering Talents in Basic Research of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. J1030622),

National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 20876088), and the National High Technology Research and Development Program of China (2010AA09Z405). The nucleotide sequence reported in this paper has been submitted to the GenBank with accession number JF331655. “
“Insertion sequences (IS) are important drivers of bacterial evolution. Here, we report a previously undescribed IS element (ISPst4) in Pseudomonas stutzeri, and its unusual interaction with plasmids introduced into this species. Transformation of the pUC19 derivative plasmid pUS23 into P. stutzeri yielded ampicillin-resistant transformants in P. stutzeri, but these grew very poorly. Plasmids recovered from the transformants frequently contained insertions of the IS elements ISPst4 and ISPst5. Hybridisation analysis showed that these two IS elements were common in P. stutzeri strains, but were not found in other pseudomonads. Insertions of ISPst4 in pUS23 were found predominantly between bla and oriV, and plasmids with this type of insertion were capable of robust replication in P. stutzeri, unlike pUS23.

All authors were involved in the design and running of the study, as well

as the analysis and interpretation of the data. We acknowledge the significant efforts of clinic and research staff at: Barts & the London NHS Trust (Dr Chloe Orkin, James Hand, Carl DeSouza, Dr Rebecca O’Connell, Duncan Scott, Paul Davis, Dr Are Isaksen, Stephen Myall, Liz Spellman, Daphne Gibbs, Sai Gomez, Katie Holmes), Guy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust (Dr Cindy Sethi, Isabelle Jendrulek, Alice Sharp, Fiona Makia, Dr Ranjababu Kulasegaram), Homerton University Hospital (Prof Jane Anderson, Dr Shema Tariq, Sara Paparini, Mohamed Rogers, Lorraine Muromba), Queen Elizabeth Hospital NHS Trust (Dr Stephen Kegg, Dr Sue Mitchell, Dr Judy Russell, Dr Meg Hunter, Kim Perez, Jayne Clark), St George’s Healthcare NHS Trust (Dr Tariq Sadiq, Ade Adebeyi, Muchaneta Ndoro, Marguerite

LDK378 molecular weight Cockerill, Dr Philip Hay, Dr Richard Lau, Dr Melanie Rosevinge, Dr Mark Pakianathan, Dr C Fernando), St Mary’s NHS Trust (Dr Alan Winston, Ken Legg, Norman Gariwa, Dr Simon Portsmouth), Walsall Manor Hospital (Dr Joseph Arumainayagam, Dr S Chandramarni, Helen Lathe), Whittall Street Clinic (Professor Jonathan Ross, Louise Brown, Katrina Hood). We acknowledge the UK Epi study team at GSK who also worked on the study design, analysis and interpretation of the results, as well as the writing of this paper. These include Catherine Wendling, MK0683 James Bringloe, Marianne Cunnington, Bridin McCaughey and Helen Pearce. Sources of funding: This project was funded by GlaxoSmithKline. Study number: Idoxuridine CNA109479. Clinicaltrials.gov identifier: NCT00453440 “
“Genital infections with low-risk (LR) and high-risk (HR) human papillomavirus (HPV) genotypes are associated with ano-genital condylomata and anal squamous cell cancer. HPV-related pathologies

in HIV-infected men are a serious concern. In this study, the prevalence of anal condylomata and their association with cytological abnormalities and HPV infection in the anal canal in HIV-infected men [men who have sex with men (MSM) and heterosexuals] were estimated. This was a cross-sectional study based on the first visits of patients in the Can Ruti HIV-positive Men (CARH·MEN) cohort. Anal condylomata were assessed by clinical and proctological examination. Samples from the anal canal were collected for HPV genotyping and cytological diagnoses. A total of 640 HIV-infected men (473 MSM and 167 heterosexuals) were included in the study. The overall prevalence of anal condylomata was 25% [157 of 640; 95% confidence interval (CI) 21–28%]; in MSM it was 28% and in heterosexuals it was 15% [odds ratio (OR) 2.2; 95% CI 1.4–3.5]. In patients with anal condylomata, HPV infection in the anal canal was more prevalent (92% vs. 67% in those without anal condylomata; OR 8.5; 95% CI 3.2–22). This higher HPV prevalence involved at least two HPV genotypes (OR 4.0; 95% CI 2.2–7.1), mainly HR genotypes (OR 3.3; 95% CI 1.7–6.4).

The action of these translesion synthesis (TLS) DNA polymerases may increase mutagenesis under

starvation or antibiotic stress (Bull et al., 2001; McKenzie et al., 2001; Yeiser et al., 2002; Tegova SB203580 molecular weight et al., 2004; Cirz et al., 2005; Pérez-Capilla et al., 2005; Tark et al., 2005; Petrosino et al., 2009). Also, endogenous oxidative and alkylation damage may induce mutations under stressful conditions (Rebeck & Samson, 1991; Foster & Cairns, 1992; Bridges, 1993; Mackay et al., 1994; Bridges et al., 1996; Saumaa et al., 2002, 2007; Ciofu et al., 2005; Mandsberg et al., 2009). The occurrence of mutations in stationary-phase populations has also been explained by alternative models (Andersson et al., 1998; Hendrickson et al., 2002; Roth et al., 2006). In the amplification model, growth and increased lac copy number precede Lac+ reversion in the Escherichia coli FC40 strain and stimulate revertant yield by providing more targets. The Pol IV-dependent mutagenesis observed in E. coli is thought to occur in clones whose lac amplification includes the nearby Pol IV gene dinB (Slechta et al., 2002). Roth et al. (2006) emphasize that both mutation rate and selection influence the mutant frequency in a population, and their selleck chemical effects are difficult to separate. For example, mutants resistant to rifampicin

(Rifr) have been shown to be accumulating in aging, nongrowing colonies of E. coli, and this was initially attributed to stress-induced general mutagenesis in nongrowing cells (Taddei et al., 1995, 1997; Bjedov et al., 2003). Later, evidence was presented that the accumulation of Rifr mutants was due to selection because they grew faster than parent cells during the aging period (Wrande et al., 2008). Despite the controversy in the interpretation of the rate of mutations in stationary-phase Sclareol populations, we cannot ignore evidence supporting the idea that different mechanisms are responsible

for the appearance of mutations in actively growing and stationary-phase populations. For example, the spectra of mutations of Lac+ revertants in starving E. coli strain FC40 differ from those identified in growing cells (Foster & Trimarchi, 1994; Rosenberg et al., 1994). In Pseudomonas putida, one particular C-to-A transversion was predominant among phenol-degrading (Phe+) mutants that arose in the starving populations, whereas various deletions were the most frequent mutations in growing cultures (Kasak et al., 1997). Moreover, the spectrum of stationary-phase mutations among early arising mutants differed from that of late arising ones, indicating that mutational processes in cells that have been starved for short periods are not entirely compatible with prolonged starvation (Saumaa et al., 2002).

The action of these translesion synthesis (TLS) DNA polymerases may increase mutagenesis under

starvation or antibiotic stress (Bull et al., 2001; McKenzie et al., 2001; Yeiser et al., 2002; Tegova Lapatinib concentration et al., 2004; Cirz et al., 2005; Pérez-Capilla et al., 2005; Tark et al., 2005; Petrosino et al., 2009). Also, endogenous oxidative and alkylation damage may induce mutations under stressful conditions (Rebeck & Samson, 1991; Foster & Cairns, 1992; Bridges, 1993; Mackay et al., 1994; Bridges et al., 1996; Saumaa et al., 2002, 2007; Ciofu et al., 2005; Mandsberg et al., 2009). The occurrence of mutations in stationary-phase populations has also been explained by alternative models (Andersson et al., 1998; Hendrickson et al., 2002; Roth et al., 2006). In the amplification model, growth and increased lac copy number precede Lac+ reversion in the Escherichia coli FC40 strain and stimulate revertant yield by providing more targets. The Pol IV-dependent mutagenesis observed in E. coli is thought to occur in clones whose lac amplification includes the nearby Pol IV gene dinB (Slechta et al., 2002). Roth et al. (2006) emphasize that both mutation rate and selection influence the mutant frequency in a population, and their Selumetinib effects are difficult to separate. For example, mutants resistant to rifampicin

(Rifr) have been shown to be accumulating in aging, nongrowing colonies of E. coli, and this was initially attributed to stress-induced general mutagenesis in nongrowing cells (Taddei et al., 1995, 1997; Bjedov et al., 2003). Later, evidence was presented that the accumulation of Rifr mutants was due to selection because they grew faster than parent cells during the aging period (Wrande et al., 2008). Despite the controversy in the interpretation of the rate of mutations in stationary-phase Adenosine triphosphate populations, we cannot ignore evidence supporting the idea that different mechanisms are responsible

for the appearance of mutations in actively growing and stationary-phase populations. For example, the spectra of mutations of Lac+ revertants in starving E. coli strain FC40 differ from those identified in growing cells (Foster & Trimarchi, 1994; Rosenberg et al., 1994). In Pseudomonas putida, one particular C-to-A transversion was predominant among phenol-degrading (Phe+) mutants that arose in the starving populations, whereas various deletions were the most frequent mutations in growing cultures (Kasak et al., 1997). Moreover, the spectrum of stationary-phase mutations among early arising mutants differed from that of late arising ones, indicating that mutational processes in cells that have been starved for short periods are not entirely compatible with prolonged starvation (Saumaa et al., 2002).

The probability of hospitalization was significantly lower among TRC (34/446 or 7.6%) compared to DC (154/1,182 or 13.0%). Salmonellosis was the most common reason for hospitalization in both groups (12/34 TRC or 35.3% and 62/154 DC or selleck chemicals llc 40.3%). TRC and DC were not statistically different by gender but they were by age and disease (Table 5). In comparison to DC, TRC had relatively more cases in the

15- to 24-year-age group (18.8% vs 10.4%) and less in the 60+ year age group (9.6% vs 13.7%). More than 33% of the total cases were TRC for 6 of the 12 reportable diseases included in the study: amebiasis, cyclosporiasis, giardiasis, hepatitis A, shigellosis, and typhoid and paratyphoid fever. The criterion for disease-specific comparisons (30 or more TRC) was met for Campylobacter enteritis, giardiasis, and non-typhoidal salmonellosis. Among the Campylobacter enteritis cases, Campylobacter coli was statistically more

common among TRC (71% of all C coli cases) and Campylobacter jejuni was less common (20% of all C jejuni cases). Salmonella enteritidis (SE) was the most frequent serotype overall and was significantly ZVADFMK more commonly found in TRC (57/117 or 48.72%) compared to all other serotypes combined (58/315 or 18.4%). TRC were younger than DC for giardiasis and campylobacteriosis, but not for non-typhoidal salmonellosis. The delay between onset and report was statistically longer among TRC compared to DC for Campylobacter enteritis (interquartiles: 7-10-17 and 6-8-11 PD184352 (CI-1040) d, respectively) and non-typhoidal salmonellosis (8-10.5-18 and 6-8-11 d, respectively), but not for giardiasis. For each disease, the duration of disease and percent hospitalized did not differ between TRC and DC. Comparisons of symptoms between TRC and DC among each disease showed only one statistically significant difference: bloody diarrhea was more frequent in DC compared to TRC among Campylobacter enteritis (40% vs 20%, respectively). This study clearly fulfills gaps identified with regard to travel-acquired enteric illness in Canada.14

It comprehensively describes TRC among 10 reportable diseases caused by enteropathogens in a Canadian community. The study also provides evidence of particular traveler profiles based on travel characteristics and age and indicates potential profile-associated risk in contracting illness abroad. Finally, it quantifies the burden of TRC in terms of cases and hospitalization. This study used surveillance data, which is one possible approach identified to estimate health risk related to travel outside the country of residence.24 More specifically, data were obtained through a sentinel site surveillance approach, demonstrating its efficiency compared to the other surveillance approaches currently in place in Canada.

The probability of hospitalization was significantly lower among TRC (34/446 or 7.6%) compared to DC (154/1,182 or 13.0%). Salmonellosis was the most common reason for hospitalization in both groups (12/34 TRC or 35.3% and 62/154 DC or ATR inhibitor 40.3%). TRC and DC were not statistically different by gender but they were by age and disease (Table 5). In comparison to DC, TRC had relatively more cases in the

15- to 24-year-age group (18.8% vs 10.4%) and less in the 60+ year age group (9.6% vs 13.7%). More than 33% of the total cases were TRC for 6 of the 12 reportable diseases included in the study: amebiasis, cyclosporiasis, giardiasis, hepatitis A, shigellosis, and typhoid and paratyphoid fever. The criterion for disease-specific comparisons (30 or more TRC) was met for Campylobacter enteritis, giardiasis, and non-typhoidal salmonellosis. Among the Campylobacter enteritis cases, Campylobacter coli was statistically more

common among TRC (71% of all C coli cases) and Campylobacter jejuni was less common (20% of all C jejuni cases). Salmonella enteritidis (SE) was the most frequent serotype overall and was significantly GSK1120212 chemical structure more commonly found in TRC (57/117 or 48.72%) compared to all other serotypes combined (58/315 or 18.4%). TRC were younger than DC for giardiasis and campylobacteriosis, but not for non-typhoidal salmonellosis. The delay between onset and report was statistically longer among TRC compared to DC for Campylobacter enteritis (interquartiles: 7-10-17 and 6-8-11 Edoxaban d, respectively) and non-typhoidal salmonellosis (8-10.5-18 and 6-8-11 d, respectively), but not for giardiasis. For each disease, the duration of disease and percent hospitalized did not differ between TRC and DC. Comparisons of symptoms between TRC and DC among each disease showed only one statistically significant difference: bloody diarrhea was more frequent in DC compared to TRC among Campylobacter enteritis (40% vs 20%, respectively). This study clearly fulfills gaps identified with regard to travel-acquired enteric illness in Canada.14

It comprehensively describes TRC among 10 reportable diseases caused by enteropathogens in a Canadian community. The study also provides evidence of particular traveler profiles based on travel characteristics and age and indicates potential profile-associated risk in contracting illness abroad. Finally, it quantifies the burden of TRC in terms of cases and hospitalization. This study used surveillance data, which is one possible approach identified to estimate health risk related to travel outside the country of residence.24 More specifically, data were obtained through a sentinel site surveillance approach, demonstrating its efficiency compared to the other surveillance approaches currently in place in Canada.

The stimulus display is illustrated in Fig. 1. Four potential targets (consisting of figure 8 symbols) were displayed throughout each trial. Participants controlled the start of each trial by

pushing a button when they were ready with their gaze upon the central fixation point. After a variable fixation interval ABT-888 research buy (1000–1400 ms) the central fixation point turned into an arrow to indicate which of the four figure 8s would be the saccade target. At 25, 75, 150 or 250 ms after the onset of the arrow (the SOA), the figure 8 at the target location could change briefly (for 100 ms) into either E or 3, while the figure 8s at non-target locations could change into 5 or 2. Four trial types were used to allow the separate assessment of the effects of symbol-changes at target and at peripheral selleck screening library non-target locations: (1) ‘No-change’ trials, where all four figure 8s remained unchanged throughout the trial; (2) ‘Target’ trials, where only the figure 8 at the target location changed into E or 3, while the three figure 8s at the non-target locations remained unchanged; (3) ‘Distractor’ trials, where only the three figure 8s at the non-target locations changed into 5 and 2 and the figure 8 at the target location remained unchanged; and (4) ‘Target/Distractor’ trials where all four figure 8s changed at the SOA: at the target location into E or 3 and at the

non-target locations into 5 and 2. The task was presented in blocks of 52 trials and each block was presented in a different randomized order. Interspersed in each block were four No-change trials. The remaining 48 trials consisted of four trials of each trial type (Target, Target/Distractor or Distractor trials), at each of the four SOAs. On half of the trials in which Florfenicol the target symbols changed into discrimination symbols (i.e. Target and Target/Distractor trials), the figure 8 turned into E, on the other half into 3. Eye movements were recorded monocularly

using a video-based iView X Hi-Speed system (SMI, Berlin, Germany) at a sampling rate of 1250 Hz. This system uses a combination of corneal reflection and pupil tracking with a typical spatial accuracy of 0.25–0.5° and a tracking resolution of < 0.01°. Stimuli were displayed on a 21-inch CRT screen with a 100-Hz refresh rate on a display area of 400 × 300 mm, at a resolution of 800 × 600 pixels. The computer screen was positioned 600 mm in front of participants, who sat with head supported by the chin and forehead rest of the iView tracking column. As PD patients may have lower contrast sensitivity and a smaller ‘useful field of view’ than controls (Uc et al., 2005), high-contrast stimuli and small target amplitude were used to minimize any potential differences in perceptual ability between the groups.