4 Obviously the easiest detectable reaction component will be chosen. A simple but important condition is that substrate and product must differ in the observed feature. The product may be very well detectable by a distinct method, but if the substrate shows a similar signal with equal intensity, no turnover Ibrutinib ic50 can be observed at all. Often both components show a small difference of otherwise similar large basic signals, especially when only small molecular modifications occur, as with many isomerase reactions (Figure 2). Such changes may be

principally detectable, but are usually difficult to quantify, because large signals are mostly subject to strong scattering, so that the small change produced by the enzyme reaction becomes lost within this noise. In such cases the signal to noise ratio must be analysed (Figure 2, right). As a rule the intensity of the signal displayed by the reaction must exceed the noise at least by a factor of two. This is a general problem, since any method is to a more or less extent subject to scatter. Scattering can have various origins, some, e.g. instability of the instruments or measurements in turbid solutions like cell homogenates, cannot be avoided, while others, like contaminations,

turbidity caused by weakly soluble substances, soiling, dust or air bubbles Baf-A1 chemical structure can at least be reduced by careful handling. Scattering is also lowest if only the observed component (substrate or product) produces the signal (e.g. an absorption), while the other components show no signal (no absorption) in the observed range, so that the reaction starts actually at zero and any change in the signal indicates the ongoing reaction. In the simplest case an enzyme reaction can be observed by the appearance (or disappearance) selleck screening library of a coloured compound, so that it can be even observed by eye. The advantage is not just to avoid the use of an instrument; rather the reaction can

immediately and directly be controlled, excluding any operating error. Such a procedure, however, will yield no accurate and reproducible data and therefore an appropriate instrument, a colorimeter or a photometer, must be applied to determine the colour intensity. Various types are available and because of their broad applicability also for determination of proteins, nucleic acids and metabolites such an instrument should belong to the standard equipment of any biochemical laboratory. Spectrophotometers covering also the invisible UV range, where practically all substances show absorption, extend the observation range considerably. Due to the relative easy handling and the low susceptibility against disturbances photometric assays are applied as far as possible (Cantor and Schimmel, 1980, Chance, 1991 and Harris and Bashford, 1987). If an enzyme reaction cannot be observed photometrically, other optical methods may be used.