However, intestinal epithelial cells have not been found infected in these species and the initial target cells used by HPAIV H5N1 following intestinal inoculation are unknown. Neurons may represent candidates for initial infection, as their cellular surface harbours sialic acid with α2,3 linkage

to galactose in humans [59], allowing attachment of avian influenza viruses. Neurons are abundant in the olfactory epithelium of the upper respiratory tract, as well as in the wall of the intestinal tract. Neuronal transmission from the nasal cavity to the olfactory bulb has been demonstrated Selleck ABT-199 for HPAIV H5N1 in mice, suggesting a potential neuronal route of entry of the virus in this species [88]. In ferrets, lesion patterns in the olfactory bulb indicate similar neuronal spread of HPAIV H5N1 from the nasal cavity to the brain [89], [90] and [91]. CB-839 research buy However, no evidence of neuronal transmission initiated in the intestinal wall has been found in cats inoculated directly in the intestine, and it was suggested that these viruses may use microfold (M) cells for initial infection and entry [52]. Following virus attachment to cellular receptors, the HA protein of influenza viruses mediates the fusion of the virus and host cell membranes [53].

The HA protein needs to be cleaved into two polypeptide chains (HA1 and HA2) by host proteases to allow membrane fusion [92]. Only Non-specific serine/threonine protein kinase cleaved HA protein can undergo an irreversible conformational change triggered by the low pH of the host cell endosome that has internalized the virus, resulting in fusion of the virus envelope with the endosomal membrane. The presence of host proteases catalyzing HA cleavage is necessary at the site of virus entry to initiate infection following cross-species transmission of zoonotic influenza viruses (Table 2). The cleavage site of LPAIV HA protein is characterized by a single arginine residue, and is cleaved by extracellular trypsin-like proteases, which must be present at the portal of entry for infection with LPAIV to take place. These enzymes are present in a limited number of

host tissues, contributing to the development of a localized infection [92]. Trypsin-like proteases are abundant in the intestinal tract of birds [56] and [57]. In mammals, trypsin-like proteases have been shown to be present in the respiratory tract of swine, mice, rats and humans and can activate cleavage of influenza virus HA protein in vitro [93], [94], [95], [96], [97], [98], [99], [100], [101] and [102] (Table 3). In humans, those include the serine protease TMPRSS2, a type II transmembrane protease [103], and human airway trypsin-like proteases (HAT), which occur in both transmembrane and soluble forms [99] and [100]. The role these enzymes play in vivo during infection with influenza virus of zoonotic or human host origin is not known.