Mucosal PGE2 contents were also increased by luminal perfusion of ATP, reduced by P2Y receptor antagonists, NADPH oxidase inhibitors, or cPLA2 inhibitors, further supporting our hypothesis that ATP-P2Y signal-induced H2O2 production increases PGE2 synthesis, augmenting HCO3− secretion. H2O2 increases electrogenic Cl− secretion via PGE2 synthesis in rat colon[32] and in primary inner medullary collecting duct cells,[33] consistent with

our results. Luminal acid exposure increases HCO3− secretion accompanied by increased H2O2 output into the perfusate, inhibited by co-perfusion of P2Y receptor antagonists or NADPH oxidase inhibitors. Furthermore, acid-induced HCO3− secretion was reduced by inhibition www.selleckchem.com/products/lgk-974.html of cPLA2 without affecting H2O2 output. Acid-augmented mucosal PGE2 content was also reduced by these inhibitors, suggesting that the duodenal mucosa exposed to luminal ATP or acid generates H2O2 and PGE2 via the same pathway. Therefore, acid exposure triggers ATP-P2Y signals, which activate Nutlin-3 order Duox2 to generate extracellular H2O2, which activates epithelial cPLA2, which increases PGE2 synthesis via COX, followed by EP4 receptor activation, intracellular cAMP increase, and cystic

fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) activation, augmenting the rate of luminal HCO3− secretion (Fig. 2). This sequential pathway may explain the fundamental question of how luminal acid augments PG synthesis. Duodenal epithelial cells possess high catalase activity,[34-36] which may protect them from self-generated H2O2. Luminal exposure to H2O2 ≤ 0.3 mmol/L dose-dependently increased HCO3− secretion without epithelial injury or increasing mucosal permeability,[18] consistent with the effect of H2O2 on rat colonic Cl− secretion.[32] In contrast, 0.5 mmol/L H2O2 inhibits cAMP-induced or Ca2+-dependent Cl− secretion in colonic T84 cells.[37, 38] H2O2 also increases epithelial permeability

and cellular toxicity at higher concentration (≥ 0.5 mmol/L),[39, 40] suggesting that the effect of luminal H2O2 is dependent on whether its concentration is in the physiological or pathological ranges. Since generation of H2O2 by Duox2 requires sufficient luminal O2, and since activation of HCO3− secretion MCE consumes intracellular ATP, epithelial O2 consumption may be increased during acid exposure. We reported that post-prandial epithelial hypoxia was present in duodenal villous cells, induced by acid exposure, and inhibited by pretreatment with proton pump inhibitor (PPI) or oral catalase.[41] Since duodenal hypoxia increases hypoxia-inducible factor-2α signaling, enhancing iron absorption,[42, 43] and since PPI treatment decreased COX expression in the duodenal mucosa,[41] acid exposure may maintain mucosal integrity by inducing villous hypoxia. This mechanism may be implicated in the clinical observation of PPI-induced iron deficiency.