This approach resembles that of the internist who, in a case of pneumonia, would attach the same diagnostic valence to the symptom of fatigue as to the symptom of chemical structure shortness of breath. In medicine, such an approach would be labeled malpractice. In psychiatry it is officially sanctioned. A mental disorder can be considered as a composite of psychological dysfunctions, mutually interacting in a complex way. The diagnostic weight of the various components is presumably unequal. Some of them arc primary, ie, the direct consequence

of the underlying cerebral substratum; others are secondary, ie, derivatives of Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical the pathophysiological processes. Primary symptoms should be the prime target of research into the biology of the disorder and of therapeutic interventions, given their availability. Since the work of Rugen Bleuler, the fundamental distinction between Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical primary and secondary symptoms has received hardly any attention. The reason is not difficult to guess: because there were no methods to study the brain, it was virtually impossible to

validate the primary/secondary distinction. As a result of advances in biological psychiatry and psychopathology, that argument no longer holds good. Our studies in mood disorders are a case Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical in point. They led us, as mentioned above, to the hypothesis that a subgroup of depression exists in which: (i) serotonergic functioning is demonstrably disturbed; (ii) anxiety and/or aggression Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical dysregulation are the primary psychopathological features and mood-lowering the subsidiary ones; and (III) serotonergic dysfunction and affective vulnerability are causally linked. If true, the proper treatment of such serotonin -related, anxiety/aggression-driven forms of depression would be a compound that ameliorates anxiety and/or aggression via regulation of serotonergic circuits.3 Verticalization of psychiatric diagnoses

could fundamentally change the strategy for developing novel psychopharmacological principles. Instead of finding drugs to fight disorders such as schizophrenia Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical or major depression, the goal would shift towards the development of drugs that regulate core types of psychological dysfunction underlying a particular psychopathological state. Verticalization studies presuppose careful dissection of the prevailing syndrome into its component parts: the psychological dysfunctions. This is another reason why the functional approach should be an integral part of making a psychiatric diagnosis. Neglect of psychogenesis A fundamental shortcoming of Casein kinase 1 the prevailing psychiatric taxonomy is the lack of an etiological axis. The rationale for this is the wish to be atheoretical. With today’s methodologies, however, it is possible to put forward an etiological hypothesis that is as reliable as any on the presence or absence and severity of particular psychopathological symptoms. What is most particularly missing is the requirement to formulate a hypothesis on the relationship between axis I and axis II diagnoses.