We demonstrated GFP expression in myocytes surrounding the injection site within 24 h of DNA injection and were able to demonstrate very rare cells containing the model Ag EαGFP selleckchem in lymph nodes

draining the muscle injection site at 48 h after injection (Fig. 7C) though this was at the limit of our carefully controlled detection systems. Because these cells were very rare and difficult to detect, we were unable to confirm whether they themselves had expressed the Ag, or had acquired Ag from another cell, nor could we definitively phenotype and further characterise these cells. However, their location within the LN paracortex and their dendritic appearance, suggests they may be dendritic cells and potentially able to present Ag to naïve T lymphocytes. Single cell analysis using sensitive techniques such real-time PCR may be particularly informative for determining precisely which cells express the acquired DNA and hence the contribution of direct versus cross priming for priming DNA vaccine-induced antigen presentation. Hence the identity of the cell presenting DNA-encoded antigen to naïve T cells remains controversial and there appear to be roles for Ag presentation

both by directly transfected dendritic cells MEK inhibitor and by antigen transfer from somatic cells to APCs [39], [40] and [41]. As noted above antigen dose and persistence has significant functional consequences for the development of long-lived memory lymphocytes and hence is an important consideration for DNA vaccine design. Brief exposure to high amounts of Ag is often associated with the rapid expansion of effector CD8 T cells but limited development of long-lived memory T cells, whereas prolonged exposure to lower Ag amounts, can induce higher numbers of (central) memory cells [9], [42] and [43]. In other studies, the precursors of long-lived memory CD4 T cells were shown to undergo lower degrees of cellular activation following their first Ag encounter, and this was a consequence of their exposure to low amounts of Ag [44].

Thus achieving the ideal balance between Ag dose, persistence and T cell activation is a very important and complex consideration for vaccines. This led us to evaluate the minimal requirements, with respect to Ag dose Rebamipide and number of peptide–MHC-bearing cells necessary to elicit immune responses in vivo and to relate this to what we see following DNA injection. We utilised and adapted a strategy for identifying cells displaying pMHC complexes using fluorescent reporters, Eα-peptide, pMHC Ab Y-Ae and Eα-specific T cells. Itano et al. [1], reported that the induction of immune responses, following immunisation with the EαRFP protein, was characterised by two distinct waves of Ag presentation and that optimal T cell activation required both phenomena.