3 g) which is difficult to prepare in the form of film and the presence of substrate will considerably complicate nitrogen adsorption evaluation. Thus, the specific surface area of the composite film can only be inferred from BET data of the corresponding powder and SEM images. With Au loading, the response is enhanced much more drastically than ZnO NPs and the response also increases with increasing Au loading level from 0 to 1.00 mol%. Considering the effect of surface area change, the BET specific surface area of ZnO ABT-263 mouse NPs is found to increase from 86.3 to 100 m2 g-1

with 1.00 mol% Au loading (see the ‘Particles and sensing film properties’ section). This corresponds to the 15.9% increase, and the influence of specific surface area alone cannot Selleckchem LCL161 explain the observed large response enhancement

by Au loading on ZnO. From the results, Au loading on ZnO increases not only the response magnitude but also the response rate substantially. Thus, the most plausible mechanism for such enhancement should be the catalytic effect of Au on ZnO NPs. Figure  9 depicts our proposed model for the catalytic effect of Au/ZnO NPs based on a P3HT-ammonia interaction mechanism reported recently [17]. In this model, it is assumed that Au/ZnO NPs located around sulfur atoms in the pentagonal rings of P3HT catalyze the reaction, causing more NH3 molecules to give lone-pair electrons and form

the weak binding. The probability for Au/ZnO NPs should be high since gold and sulfur have rather selleck compound strong binding affinity. To obtain effective catalyst activity, Au NPs should be uniformly dispersed throughout the P3HT matrix. Thus, Au plays the main role in enhancing NH3 interaction and response with P3HT, while the role of ZnO NPs is the supports that help formation and dispersion of ultrafine Au nanoparticles. However, when only 1.00 mol% Au/ZnO is used, Sulfite dehydrogenase there is no response since Au catalyzes the reaction between NH3 and P3HT. Figure 9 Proposed model for catalytic effect of Au/ZnO NPs in P3HT:Au/ZnO sensors on NH 3 sensing. For the effect of composite composition, the results show that 4:1 of P3HT:1.00 mol% Au/ZnO NPs, which is the composite with the lowest 1.00 mol% Au/ZnO NP content, offers the highest NH3 sensing enhancement and the enhancement decreases with increasing Au/ZnO NP content. A plausible explanation is that 1.00 mol% Au/ZnO NPs are well dispersed in the P3HT matrix at this low concentration, yielding a homogeneous distribution of Au/ZnO NPs throughout the layer and enabling effective catalytic interaction with NH3 gas. In addition, the well-dispersed structure should be highly porous and exhibit large surface area for gas interaction. As the content of 1.

In this mucosal immune system IgA constitutes Selleck Captisol a first line of defence responsible for neutralizing noxious antigens and pathogens [5]. In fact, malfunction of immune cells of Peyer Patches in production of secretory IgA has been considered a risk factor for CD development [6]. It has also been speculated that a transient infection could promote inflammation and increase permeability of the mucosa to antigens by activating a Th1 response with secretion of IFN-γ, the major pro-inflammatory cytokine in CD patients [7, 8]. Moreover, alterations in the Nepicastat intestinal microbiota composition of CD children in comparison with that of healthy controls, as well

as changes in the metabolites derived from the gut microbial activity have been recently reported [9–12]. Nevertheless, the possible relationship between the gut microbiota composition and the first line of immune defence in CD patients remains uncharacterized. Herein, the percentage of immunoglobulin-coated bacteria and the faecal microbiota composition of children with CD (untreated and treated with a gluten-free diet [GFD]) and controls JPH203 concentration were evaluated, thus shedding light on the possible associations between the intestinal bacteria and the host defences in this disorder. Results Immunoglobulin-coated

bacteria of faeces from CD patients Immunoglobulin-coated bacteria were quantified in faeces of both CD patient groups and healthy controls to establish whether CD could be associated with gut barrier defects or abnormal immune responses to the intestinal microbiota (Figure 1). Overall, higher percentages of IgA, IgM and IgG-coated bacteria were detected in healthy controls than in both CD patient groups. The proportions of IgA-coated bacteria were significantly lower in untreated (P = 0.018) and treated CD patients (P = 0.003) than in healthy controls. The proportions Metalloexopeptidase of IgG and IgM-coated bacteria were also significantly lower in treated CD patients than in controls (P < 0.001 and P = 0.003, respectively) and untreated CD patients (P < 0.001 and P

= 0.009, respectively). The levels of IgG were also slightly lower in untreated CD patients than in healthy controls but the differences were not significant (P = 0.069). Figure 1 Immunoglobulin-coated bacteria in faecal samples from untreated (white bars) and treated CD patients (grey bars) and healthy controls (black bars) as assessed by FCM. Panel A, IgA-coated bacteria; Panel B, IgG-coated bacteria; Panel C, IgM-coated bacteria. Date are expressed as a proportion of bacterial cells labelled with FITC-F(ab’)2 antihuman IgA, IgG or IgM to total cell population hybridising with propidium iodine. Median values and ranges are given. *Significant differences were established at P < 0.050 by applying the Mann-Whitney U-test.

Theoretical https://www.selleckchem.com/mTOR.html values of the severity score range from 0 (none of the measured consequences) to 9 (maximum

severity). Statistical analysis By means of ordinal logistic regression analyses (proportional odds), each predictor was included separately as an independent variable for a priori selection of factors. Then, all identified factors were introduced jointly. Finally, a backward stepwise selection was applied. The dependent variable was the severity index. However, since the Cronbach alpha value for the score was found to be low (0.51), separate multiple stepwise regression analyses with each component of the score as the dependent variable were performed as well (consequences on work; psychological consequences; and this website physical consequences) using the list of independent variables selected for the global severity index. Coefficients were exponentiated.

One possible interpretation of these exponentiated coefficients of the ordinal logistic regression is that they are odds ratios at any arbitrary cut point of the ordinal outcome variable. Statistical analyses were performed with Stata_/IC 11.1 (StataCorp_ 2009 LP). Gender and age were introduced as covariates. Results Our first two research PLX3397 datasheet questions aimed at identifying the characteristics of patients who had been victims of workplace violence and the characteristics of the workplace violence events that had motivated them to consult. Answers to these questions were provided by means of descriptive statistics. Table 1, Appendix 4 and 5 present these results in detail. Table 1 Comparative statistics of baseline and follow-up population, by gender Variables Baseline population N = 185 Follow-up population N = 86 Male N = 129 Female N = 56 Male N = 67 Female N = 19 Mean age (SD) 39 (12) 37 (11) 40 (12) 42 (12) Age-groups N % N % N % N %  <35 54 42

27 48 25 37 5 26  35–44 35 27 15 27 20 30 6 32  45+ 40 31 14 25 Molecular motor 22 33 8 42 Interviewed <12 months after the consultation  No         57 85 14 74  Yes         10 15 5 26 Degree of risk and awareness of workplace violence and type of occupation High risk and awareness of violence 46 36 4 7 26 39 –    Private security agents 26 20 1 2 13 19 –    Police officers/prison guards 12 9 2 4 7 11 –    Ticket inspectors (public transportation) 8 6 1 2 6 9 –   Moderate risk and awareness of violence 51 40 39 70 27 40 16 84  Taxi drivers 12 9     7 11 –    Salespersons, retail business owners 11 8 7 12 5 7 2 10  Service staff in hotels, restaurants, bars/discos 10 8 10 18 5 7 1 5  Health, teachers, social workers, school librarian 6 5 14 25 3 4 11 58  Drivers (public transportation) 5 4 –   4 6 –    Sex workers 1 1 6 11 –   2 10  Janitors 4 3 2 4 2 3 –    Post office staff (counter) 2 2 –   1 2 –   Low risk and awareness of violence 32 24 13 23 14 20 3 16  Administration 7 5 7 13 3 4 2 11  Misc.

Therefore, gene disruption procedure of the fkbN gene was aided by the introduction of a kanamycin resistance cassette in order to simplify the otherwise laborious identification of secondary recombinants. In order to introduce the kanamycin resistance cassette, the Selleck Dinaciclib pDG7 plasmid containing the fkbN flanking regions was digested using NdeI, blunt-ended and dephosphorylated. A 1323 bp blunt-end fragment containing the kanamycin resistance cassette was excised from the SuperCos 1 cosmid vector (Stratagene)

and then ligated into the vector, resulting in pDG8 (Table 1). The disruption plasmids pDG5, pDG6 and pDG8 were then introduced into electrocompetent E. coli strain ET12567 containing the conjugative plasmid pUZ8002 [32, 43]. The conjugation procedure was carried out as described previously [42]. Exconjugants were grown at 28°C on ISP4 sporulation medium with addition of apramycin (pKC1139). Exconjugants were then inoculated into VG3 medium and cultivated at 28°C and 220 rpm to obtain a good seed culture [30]. After 24 hours, the cultures were reinoculated into a new tube with fresh

VG3 medium and cultivated at 37°C. Above 34°C the pKC1139-based vector is unable to replicate and is forced to integrate into the S. Danusertib research buy tsukubaensis genome via homologous regions, thus yielding primary recombinants. The cultures were then further subcultivated at 37°C several times in VG3 medium and then plated onto the ISP4 sporulation Epacadostat medium. Harvested spores were filtered and serial dilutions were plated onto the sporulation medium without apramycin (with kanamycin in the case of fkbN disruption). Chloroambucil After 5–8 days of cultivation at 28°C single colonies were replica-plated onto plates without antibiotic and plates with apramycin (both with kanamycin in the case of fkbN). Primary recombinants were still resistant to apramycin, while secondary recombinants lost apramycin resistance. The apramycin sensitive colonies were

further screened using PCR to confirm the deletion. In the case of fkbN, the final screening step was simplified by the addition of kanamycin to the medium which precluded the growth of revertants to wild-type after secondary recombination, which greatly reduced the time and effort required to screen for correct secondary recombinants using PCR. After the stable secondary recombinants were identified and verified by PCR a double mutant was additionally generated in which both the fkbR and fkbN genes inactivated. Taking the ΔfkbR strain as the starting point we disrupted the fkbN gene using the same procedure as described above. Finally, all mutant strains were tested for FK506 production. Figure 2 Schematic representation of disruption plasmids and inactivated fkbN (A) and fkbR (B) genes after secondary recombination. Evaluation of the promoter activity of the selected genes from the S.

Arrows indicate the sampling times (0.5, 1.5 and 3.9 h after MMS treatment) for transcriptome and proteome analyses. Transcriptome and proteome profiles of E. coli W3110 in NVP-BSK805 cost response to MMS Transcriptome and proteome analyses were performed for the samples taken at 0.5, 1.5 and 3.9 h following MMS treatment for both learn more MMS-treated and -untreated control cultures, and the expression levels were compared. Those genes

and proteins which were differentially expressed by greater than 2-fold or less than a half in MMS-treated cells compared with the controls (MMS-untreated cells) were considered to be meaningfully up- or down-regulated ones by MMS treatment. To find further functional characteristics of genes implicated in adaptive response, differentially expressed

genes of known function were selected and classified according to functional category [22] (Figure 2). At 0.5 h following MMS treatment, 139 genes were found to be up-regulated, while no gene was down-regulated. Proteome analysis showed the induction of 17 protein spots in MMS treated cultures (Figure 3, Additional file 1: Table S1). The most strongly induced proteins were Vorinostat those involved in DNA replication, recombination, modification and repair (RecA and Mfd); cell process including adaptation and protection (AhpF, HtpG, NfnB and YfiD); translation and posttranslational

modification (DsbA, InfB, ProS, RpsB, ThrS and one isoform of Tsf); and others (Eda, GlpD, RpoC, YjgF and YeaG). Interestingly, a different isoform of elongation factor Ts (encoded by the tsf gene) was detected in the case of MMS-treated cells, the spot intensity of which significantly increased with exposure time to MMS. In contrast, the total amount of this protein was not significantly changed over time similarly to the mRNA expression level (Figure 3). In addition, GrcA (Synonyms: YfiD) known PRKACG to be induced by acid stress had also two isoforms (spots 12 and 13) on the 2-D gels. The response tendency of the total level of this protein was similar to that of the gene expression level (Figure 3). These results indicate that MMS treatment triggers synthesis of some proteins in different isoforms by posttranslational modification. Figure 2 Distribution of differentially expressed genes. E. coli W3110 (A) and its ada mutant (B) strains at each time profile (0.5, 1.5 and 3.9 h) were sampled and compared after MMS treatment based on the corresponding untreated control. The up- or down-regulated genes at each time point were counted after classification by functional categories according to the E. coli genome information [22].

When the Ti-protruding dots were anodized for over 3 min, beautiful arrays of TiO2 micro-flowers successfully bloomed on the Ti foil sheets. The blooming TiO2 micro-flowers were applied as the photoelectrodes of DSCs. The J-V characteristics of the DSCs based on the TiO2 micro-flowers were compared buy Small molecule library with those based on bare TiO2 nanotubes. The J sc and power conversion Selleck Sapanisertib efficiency values of DSCs based on TiO2 micro-flowers were higher than those of bare samples. TiO2 micro-flowers facilitated better dye adsorption, resulting in higher J sc values. The TiO2 micro-flowers had a larger surface area for dye adsorption compared to that of bare TiO2 nanotubes. The efficiency of the DSCs based on the TiO2 micro-flowers

was found to reach 1.517%. The efficiency levels of the DSCs based on the TiO2 micro-flowers were relatively low compared to those of conventional DSCs based on TiO2 nanoparticle structures, as the

thickness of the TiO2 nanotubes in the micro-flowers was very small. To improve the efficiency of DSCs based on TiO2 micro-flowers, our future work will concentrate on controlling the characteristics of the dot patterns such as the dot diameter, the distance between adjacent dots, and the height of the protruding dots. Acknowledgements This research was financially supported by the Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology (MEST) and by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) through the Human Resources Training Project for Regional Innovation ��-Nicotinamide order (No. NRF-2012H1B8A2026009). References 1. Oregan B, Grätzel M: A low-cost, high-efficiency solar-cell based on dye-sensitized colloidal TiO2 films. Nature 1991,353(6346):737–740.CrossRef 2. Li L-L, Diau EW-G: Porphyrin-sensitized solar cells. Chem Soc Rev 2013,42(1):291–304.CrossRef 3. Yella A, Lee H-W, Tsao HN, Yi C, Chandiran AK, Nazeeruddin MK, Diau EW-G, Yeh C-Y, Zakeeruddin SM, Grätzel M: Porphyrin-sensitized solar cells with cobalt (II/III)-based redox electrolyte exceed 12 percent efficiency. Science 2011,334(6056):629–634.CrossRef

4. Zhu X, Tsuji Avelestat (AZD9668) H, Yella A, Chauvin A-S, Grätzel M, Nakamura E: New sensitizers for dye-sensitized solar cells featuring a carbon-bridged phenylenevinylene. Chem Commun 2013,49(6):582–584.CrossRef 5. Marszalek M, Nagane S, Ichake A, Humphry-Baker R, Paul V, Zakeeruddin SM, Grätzel M: Structural variations of D-π-a dyes influence on the photovoltaic performance of dye-sensitized solar cells. RSC Adv 2013, 3:7921–7927.CrossRef 6. Margulis GY, Lim B, Hardin BE, Unger EL, Yum J-H, Feckl JM, Fattakhova-Rohlfing D, Bein T, Grätzel M, Sellinger A: Highly soluble energy relay dyes for dye-sensitized solar cells. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2013, 15:11306–11312.CrossRef 7. Wu Y, Marszalek M, Zakeeruddin SM, Zhang Q, Tian H, Grätzel M, Zhu W: High-conversion-efficiency organic dye-sensitized solar cells: molecular engineering on D–a–π-a featured organic indoline dyes.

) 22 17 5 9 10 15 1 5  Kitchen staff 3 2 1 2 1 1.5 –   Highest level of education  Compulsory or no school 30 23 18 32 17 25 4 21  Vocational education and training 46 36 8 14 24 36 3 16  High school and beyond 28 22 15 27 18 27 8 42  Missing values 25 19 15 27 8 12 4 21 Characteristics of the workplace violence victims Since it was deemed important to examine differences between men and women, tables were broken down by gender. In brief,

we found that the total population of workplace violence victims was composed of 185 patients who reported 196 violent events. Seventy percent of the victims were male. The youngest age-group (under 35) was the most represented RXDX-101 supplier category, both for men (42 %) and women (48 %). Ninety-two percent learn more A-1210477 chemical structure of respondents worked in the service industry and in contact with the public. Among the types of occupations held by the victims, 36 % of men worked in “high risk and awareness of violence jobs” (private security agents, police

officers, prison guards and ticket controllers in public transportation), while only 7 % of the women were found in that category. Seventy percent of women vs. 40 % of men were employed in “moderate risk and awareness of violence jobs.” Characteristics of the workplace violence events Concerning characteristics of the violent events (N = 196), 73 % of situations concerned external violence and 27 % internal violence. The latter were perpetrated in 70 % of cases by a colleague, 24 % of the time by a subordinate and more rarely (6 %) by a superior. The perpetrator Florfenicol acted alone in 83 % of

situations, and 91 % of the time was male. Thirty-two percent of the violent events happened during night work (11 pm–6 am). In all cases, victims were assaulted physically. Consequences of the workplace violence events Our third research question aimed at investigating the clinically assessed consequences of the workplace violence events on the health and work of the victims, and at identifying factors that affected the severity of consequences. To this end, a follow-up study was carried out. Table 1 allows comparison of the source population with the population of patients who participated in the follow-up telephone survey (N = 86). The two most noteworthy differences between the baseline and source population were, first, a higher male/female sex ratio (3.5) and, second, a larger representation of Swiss citizens (55 %) than foreign nationals (45 %). As far as the other variables examined were concerned, the two populations were quite similar. Telephone interviews were carried out between 7 and 55 months after the violent event, with an average of 30 months. The severity of consequences of the workplace violence event was scored. The maximum severity score value recorded was 7/9. Fourteen percent scored ≥4, which corresponds to particularly severe consequences. Forty-two percent were in the medium range of the score (1–3). For 44 % of interviewees, scores were zero in the absence of consequences.

Future experimentation with this supplement should incorporate these measures to address this

limitation. One hypothesized mechanism relating the influence of intracellular metabolic acidosis on muscle fatigue is a postulated influence on the central nervous systems’ ability to recruit the affected muscle fibers [5]. For example, Street et al. [17] has shown that extracellular alkalosis induced by sodium citrate ingestion will influence the accumulation of interstitial H+, which, in turn, was coupled to an increase in potassium ions (K+). Since the accumulation see more of interstitial K+ has been shown to reduce muscle excitability [18], the lowering interstitial K+ has also been postulated to improve performance of the affected muscle [19]. It has also been suggested that local pH and concentrations of K+ are related to local vasodilatory mechanisms [20]. In short, induced extracellular alkalosis

selleck kinase inhibitor may influence blood flow indirectly through an influence on interstitial K+ concentrations. Study limitations As a pilot evaluation of this Alka-Myte®-based supplement, this study was designed simply to describe the effects of a proscribed supplementation routine ZD1839 in vitro rather than decipher possible mechanisms. Thus, future studies should verify the potential ergogenic effects of this supplement with more invasive measures of changes in blood pH. In addition, it is not known whether a 7-day loading phase was necessary for the observed treatment effects or whether

a longer loading phase, or even a higher daily dosage, would elite different results. Thus, issues related to a dose-response paradigm must be addressed with future studies. Conclusions In response to seven days of ingesting an Alka-Myte®-based alkalizing nutrition supplement, trained Nordic skiers experienced significant changes in cardiorespiratory, blood lactate, and upper body power output measures. All of the observed changes were Cell press consistent with those of an ergogenic aid for trained Nordic skiers. In contrast, a similar group of Nordic skiers consuming a placebo did not experience similar changes. Thus, the use of this supplement appeared to impart an ergogenic benefit to the skiers that may be similar to the effects expected from consuming well-studied extracellular buffering agents such as sodium bicarbonate. Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge the enthusiastic participation of the Montana State University Nordic Team as participants in this study. References 1. Linossier MT, Dormois D, Bregere P, Geyssant A, Denis C: Effect of sodium citrate on performance and metabolism of human skeletal muscle during supramaximal cycling exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol 1997, 76:48–54.CrossRef 2.

As a critical cell cycle regulator, CDK6 induces an ARS-1620 cost important cascade of events in G1-phase. It can modify

Rb phosphorylation efficiently together with CDK4 and cyclin D1, and is considered to a primary sensor for driving cells through the R point to enter a new round of replication. Therefore, CDK6 has been regarded as a possible target for cancer therapy [33]. The knock-down of CDK6 via RNAi technique illustrated the G1-phase arrest, which phenocopied the cell cycle arrest effect of miR-320c over-expression. Therefore, CDK6 is another important mediator in miR-320c induced G1/S phase transition arrest and cell proliferation suppression. As we mentioned before, the knock-down of CDK6, generally accepted as a cell cycle mediator, also yielded an inhibitory effect on cell mobility, which was confusing. Previous studies also indicated that knock-down of CDK6 could inhibit cell invasion and migration in gastric and Ewing’s Sarcoma [34]. However, the accurate mechanisms were still unknown. A recent study indicated that CDK6, as a key protein, coordinated cell proliferation and migration in breast cancer mainly dependent on the expression of estrogen receptor [35]. Furthermore, various oncogenic signaling pathways, including c-Myc, Ras, and Neu (ErbB2), have been described to converge on cell cycle proteins selleck chemical cyclinD1, CDK4/6 expression [36]. The data presented

in our study also identified a novel role for cell cycle protein CDK6 in bladder cancer

through the coordination of cell cycle, migration and invasion. Ectopic over-expression of CDK6 (without the 3′-UTR) significantly abrogated the miR-320c-induced G1 arrest of bladder cancer cells and promoted cell proliferation and motility in vitro. To sum up, these results suggested that miR-320c inhibited the proliferation and motility of bladder cancer cells via, at least in part, directly targeting the 3′-UTR of CDK6. Thus, our current study revealed what we believed to be a novel upstream regulatory mechanism of CDK6 in cancer cells. Conclusions In conclusion, our study suggests that miR-320c is a potential tumor suppressor in bladder cancer. By targeting CDK6, miR-320c can inhibit proliferation and impair cell mobility in bladder cancer cells. Restoration of miR-320c could be a promising therapeutic strategy for bladder cancer therapy. Acknowledgements This Staurosporine in vitro study was H 89 supported by Grants from the National Key Clinical Specialty Construction Project of China, Combination of traditional Chinese and Western medicine key disciplines of Zhejiang Province (2012-XK-A23), Health sector scientific research special project (201002010), National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 81372773) and Natural Science Foundation of Zhejiang Province (LQ14H160012). References 1. Jemal A, Bray F, Center MM, Ferlay J, Ward E, Forman D: Global cancer statistics. CA Cancer J Clin 2011, 61(2):69–90.PubMedCrossRef 2.

coli, Klebsiella, ATM Kinase Inhibitor clinical trial Enterococcus   Small Intestine E. coli, Klebsiella, Lactobacillus Streptococci Diptheroids Enterococci   Distal ileum and colon Bacteroides fragilis Clostridium spp. E. coli Enterobacter spp. Klebsiella spp. Peptostreptococci Enterococci Teritiary peritonitis   Enterococcus Candida Staphylococcus epidermidis Enterobacter Adapted from Weigelt JA [12]. Tertiary peritonitis represents an infection that is persistent or recurrent at least 48 hours after appropriate management of primary or secondary peritonitis. It is more common among critically ill or immunocompromised patients[12]. Because of the poor host defenses, it is also

often associated with less virulent organisms, such as Enterococcus, Candida, Staphylococcus epidermidis, and Enterobacter [13]. Intra-abdominal sepsis is

an IAI that results in severe sepsis or septic shock[2]. Pathophysiology The peritoneum divides the abdomen into the peritoneal cavity and the retroperitoneum. The peritoneum is a layer of mesothelium that lines the abdominal cavity. It is abundantly innervated by the somatic nervous system. This explains the intense localized pain that patients experience when they have peritoneal inflammation or injury. Functionally, it provides approximately one m2 of exchange area, and holds approximately 100 ml of peritoneal fluid, primarily consisting of macrophages and lymphocytes[14, 15]. Negative pressure generated by diaphragmatic A-1210477 clinical trial relaxation Selleck MCC950 causes peritoneal fluid to flow upward toward a specialized system of diaphragmatic fenestrae. This high flow system Inositol monophosphatase 1 drains fluid into the lymphatic system. During infection, this allows for rapid efflux of

micro-organisms and host defenses into the venous system via the thoracic duct[16]. Perforation, and the bacterial innoculation that ensues, causes an inflammatory response that acts locally to contain the infection; but, in the setting of overwhelming contamination, it can spread to cause systemic inflammation. Several mechanisms act locally to contain or destroy infection. Tissue injury stimulates mast cell degranulation. Mast cell degranulation releases histamine, kinins, leukotrienes, prostacyclines, and free radicals. These factors increase vascular and peritoneal permeability allowing for local influx of complement and coagulation cascade factors. Influx of complement at the site of contamination allows for bacterial opsonization via C3b. Diaphragmatic motion, described above, then leads to absorption of bacteria laden peritoneal fluid into the lymphatic system. Opsonised organisms in the lymph are transported to the reticuloendothelial system, where they are destroyed. In addition to bacterial destruction via opsonization, complement also attracts neutrophils to the site of injury via chemotactic factors C3a and C5a.