New Phytol 182:303–313CrossRefPubMed Rassi P, Hyvärinen E, Juslén A et al (eds) (2010) The 2010 Red List of Finnish Species. Ympäristöministeriö and Suomen

ympäristökeskus, Helsinki Root TL, Price JT, Hall KR et al (2003) Fingerprints of global warming on wild animals and plants. Nature 421:57–60CrossRefPubMed Secretariat of the CBD (2002) Global strategy for plant conservation. Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Montreal Secretariat of the CBD (2009) The Convention on Biological Diversity Plant Conservation Report: A Review of Progress in Implementing the Global Strategy of Plant Conservation (GSPC). Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Montreal Thuiller W, Lavorel S, Araújo MB et al (2005) Climate change threats to plant diversity in Europe. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102:8245–8250CrossRefPubMed MK0683 mouse Vitt P, Havens K, Kramer AT et al (2010) Assisted migration of plants: changes in latitudes, changes in attitudes. Biol Conserv 143:18–27CrossRef”
“Why a living archive of traditional ornamentals on public display? Since 2003, the Botanical Garden Selleckchem GSI-IX in Oslo has been involved in a national project, The Plant Heritage project,

coordinated by the Norwegian Genetic Resource Centre, aiming to conserve old ornamentals in Norway. Similar projects have been funded in other botanical gardens in Norway as well. Our garden has been responsible for the registration and the collecting of ornamentals throughout Southeast-Norway and has a special responsibility for the conservation of Paeonia species and cultivars. In the south-eastern part of Norway in particular, long-term experience has shown that both the wild flora and traditional ornamentals

are under threat due to SN-38 molecular weight increased urbanization (Kålås et al. 2006). In order to get public awareness of the urgent need to conserve the genetic resources represented by the old and rapidly disappearing cultivars of traditional ornamentals, the Botanical Garden in Oslo decided to display its collections of such plants 3-oxoacyl-(acyl-carrier-protein) reductase for the public in a garden called Great-granny’s Garden. People remember many of these plants from the gardens of their grandparents or their great grandparents. The garden was opened to the public in 2008. Great-granny’s Garden provides information about the collecting location and the history of each plant and on the work of the Norwegian Genetic Resource Centre. Old cultivars differ both morphologically and genetically from plants in trade today. Experience tells us that they seem to be hardy and long-lived and are mostly easy to grow. Nevertheless, they are rapidly disappearing due to new trends in horticulture, neglect by garden owners, construction of new houses in old gardens, and general urbanization. Horticultural experience has shown that most cultivars do not breed true through seeds and therefore cannot be conserved as seeds in a seed bank. They must be kept as clones in a living archive.

Conclusions We created a plasmid for gene expression and mutation complementation in Z. mobilis and used the pKnock system to create an hfq mutant in Z. mobilis acetate tolerant strain AcR. We showed that Z. mobilis hfq played a role in tolerance to multiple biomass pretreatment inhibitors including acetate, vanillin, furfural, and HMF. In addition, Hfq homologues of yeast Lsm proteins Lsm1, 6, and 7 involving

in the this website RNA processing heteroheptameric ring complex formation, especially Lsm6, contribute to multiple pretreatment inhibitor tolerance in S. cerevisiae. However, further studies such as systems biology studies and ChIP-Seq are required to elucidate the hfq stress response regulon in Z. mobilis and the yeast inhibitor tolerance genes affected by the RNA processing Lsm complexes. Methods Strains and culture conditions Bacterial strains and

plasmids used in this study are listed in Table 1. E. coli strains were cultured using Luria-Bertani (LB) broth or agar plates. E. coli WM3064 was supplemented with 100 μg/mL diaminopimelic acid (DAP). Z. mobilis ZM4 was obtained from the American Type Culture Collection (ATCC 31821) and the Z. mobilis acetate tolerant strain AcR has been described previously [13]. ZM4 and AcR were cultured in RM medium (Glucose, 20.0 g/L; Yeast Extract, 10.0 g/L; KH2PO4, 2.0 g/L, pH5.0) at 30°C. S. cerevisiae wild-type, deletion mutant and GST-fusion ORF overexpression strains were obtained through Open Biosystems find more (Huntsville, AL). S. cerevisiae strains were cultured in CM medium with 2% glucose for wild-type and S. cerevisiae deletion mutants. CM medium with 2% glucose minus uracil was used for S. cerevisiae GST-over expressing strains, and 2% galactose was used to induce the GST-fusion strains. CM Lepirudin broth with glucose and CM broth with glucose minus uracil were purchased from Teknova Inc. (Hollister, CA) (C8000 and C8140 respectively). Plasmid-containing strains were routinely grown with antibiotics at the following concentrations (μg/mL): kanamycin, 50 for E. coli and 200

for ZM4; tetracycline, 10 for E. coli and 20 for ZM4; gentamicin, 10 for E. coli; and G418, 200 for S. cerevisiae YKO deletion mutants. Bacterial growth was monitored using the Bioscreen C automated microbiology growth curve analysis system using 600nm filter (Growth Curves USA, Piscataway, NJ). PCR and DNA manipulations Genomic DNA from Z. mobilis was isolated using a Wizard Genomic DNA purification kit (Fedratinib order Promega, Madison, WI). The QIAprep Spin Miniprep and HiSpeed Plasmid Midi kits (Qiagen, Valencia, CA) were used for plasmid isolation. PCR, restriction enzyme digestion, ligation, cloning, and DNA manipulations were following standard molecular biology approaches as described previously [34] and sequencing was conducted using BigDye Terminator v3.

J Mol Microbiol Biotechnol 1999, 1:107–125.PubMed

32. Nies DH: Efflux mediated heavy metal resistance in prokaryotes. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2003, 27:313–339.PubMedCrossRef 33. Su CC, Long F, Zimmermann MT, Rajashankar KR, Jernigan RL, Edward WY: Crystal structure of the CusBA heavy-metal efflux complex of Escherichia coli . Nature 2011, 470:558–562.PubMedCrossRef 34. selleck kinase inhibitor Goldberg M, Pribyl T, Juhnke S, Nies DH: Energetics and topology of CzcA, a cation/proton antiporter of the resistance-nodulation-cell TGF-beta inhibitor division protein family. J Biol Chem 1999, 274:26065–26070.PubMedCrossRef 35. Singh SK, Grass G, Rensing C, Montfort WR: Cuprous oxidase activity of CueO from Escherichia coli . J Bact 2004, 186:7815–7817.PubMedCrossRef 36. Kulathila R, Kulathila R, Indic M, van den Berg B: Crystal structure of Escherichia coli CusC, the outer membrane component of a heavy metal efflux pump. PLoS One 2011, 6:e15610.PubMedCrossRef 37. Jensen RA: Enzyme recruitment in evolution of new function. Annu Rev Microbiol 1976, selleck products 30:409–425.PubMedCrossRef 38. Horowitz NH: On the evolution of biochemical syntheses. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1945, 31:153–7.PubMedCrossRef 39. Djoko KY, Xiao Z, Wedd AG: Copper Resistance in E. coli : The Multicopper Oxidase PcoA Catalyzes Oxidation of Copper (I) in Cu(I)Cu(II)-PcoC. ChemBioChem 2008, 9:1579–1582.PubMedCrossRef 40.

Su CC, Yang F, Long F, Reyon D, Routh MD, Kuo DW, Mokhtari AK, Van Ornam JD, Rabe KL, Hoy JA: Crystal Structure of the Membrane Fusion Protein CusB from Escherichia coli . J Mol Biol 2009, 393:342–355.PubMedCrossRef

41. Long F, Su CC, Lei HT, Bolla JR, Do SV, Edward WY: Structure and mechanism of the tripartite CusCBA heavy-metal efflux complex. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2012, 367:1047–1058.PubMedCrossRef 42. Mealman TD, Bagai I, Singh P, Goodlet DR, Rensing C, Zhou H, Wysocki VH, McEvoy MM: Interactions between CusF and CusB identified by NMR spectroscopy and chemical cross-linking coupled to mass spectrometry. Biochemistry 2011, 50:2559–2566.PubMedCrossRef 43. Krishnamoorthy AMP deaminase G, Tikhonova EB, Zgurskaya HI: Fitting periplasmic membrane fusion proteins to inner membrane transporters: mutations that enable Escherichia coli AcrA to function with Pseudomonas aeruginosa MexB. J Bact 2008, 190:691–698.PubMedCrossRef 44. Claus H: Laccases: structure, reactions, distribution. Micron 2004, 35:93–96.PubMedCrossRef 45. Diaz-Mejia JJ, Perez-Rueda E, Segovia L: A network perspective on the evolution of metabolism by gene duplication. Genome Biol 2007, 8:R26.PubMedCrossRef 46. Kanehisa M, Goto S: KEGG: kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes. Nucleic Acids Res 2000, 28:27–30.PubMedCrossRef 47. Kanehisa M, Goto S, Sato Y, Furumichi M, Tanabe M: KEGG for integration and interpretation of large-scale molecular data sets. Nucleic Acids Res 2012, 40:D109-D114.PubMedCrossRef 48. Altenhoff AM, Dessimoz C: Phylogenetic and functional assessment of orthologs inference projects and methods. PLoS Comput Biol 2009, 5:e1000262.

jejuni mutants were constructed with C. jejuni 81-176 as the parental strain by performing electroporation of suicide plasmids [47]. The antibiotic resistant genes used to construct mutants were prepared as followed; a chloramphenicol resistance cassette (cat) was amplified from pRY112 using primers

of catF(SmaI) and catR(SmaI), and Vent Polymerase (New England Biolabs). To construct C. jejuni FMB1116, a DNA fragment containing rpoN and flanking region was amplified using primers rpoN_F and rpoN_R, and then ligated into SmaI-digested pUC19. The this website resultant plasmid was digested with SmiI, and then cat cassette was inserted into that digested site. The QNZ datasheet orientation of the cat cassette was confirmed by sequencing, click here and the plasmid in which the orientation of cat cassette was same to rpoN was designated as pUC-rpoN::cat. This plasmid was used as a suicide plasmid to

construct C. jejuni FMB1116. For the rpoN complementation, an extra copy of rpoN was integrated into the chromosome by the methodology reported elsewhere [48]. Briefly, a DNA fragment containing rpoN and its putative promoter region was amplified with rpoNC_F(XbaI) and rpoNC_R(XbaI) primers. The PCR product was digested with XbaI and cloned into pFMB, which carries rRNA gene cluster and a kanamycin PRKACG resistance cassette. The constructed plasmid was delivered to the bacterial cell, FMB1116, by electroporation. Transmission electron microscopy Bacterial cell suspension of each C. jejuni cultured on MH agar plate with or without NaCl was absorbed onto a 400 mesh carbon-coated grid, negatively stained with 0.2% aqueous uranyl acetate (pH4.0), and observed in an EF-TEM (LIBRA 120, Carl Zeiss, Hamburg, Germany) at an accelerating

voltage of 80 kV. Viability tests under various stress conditions C. jejuni strains were inoculated into MH broth to an OD at 600 nm (OD600) of 0.1. After culturing to the early mid log phase (about 5 hr), OD600 was adjusted to 0.2. The aliquots of bacterial cells were exposed to several different stress conditions. The resistance to osmotic and pH shock was measured by culturing serially-diluted bacterial cells for 24 hr on MH agar plates containing 0.8% NaCl or at pH levels of 5.5 and 7.5. To test the susceptibility to oxidative stress, C. jejuni strains were exposed to the final concentration of 1 mM of H2O2 under microaerophilic condition for 1 hr. For heat and cold stresses, bacterial cells were incubated at 55°C and -20°C for 15 min or 1 hr, respectively.

D eff is the effective diffusion coefficient, and N 1 is the number of oxygen molecules incorporated per unit volume of the oxide layer. The coefficient A is independent of the partial pressure, leading to the linear rate constant B/A which linearly increases with oxygen flux as well.   In a similar manner, we propose that

the higher Si fluxes being generated via substrate oxidation now make it possible for higher rates of oxidation to occur Autophagy Compound Library mouse at heterogeneous defect sites including stacking faults and twins within the QD (Figure 1c,d) and hence cause it to ‘explode’ into multiple Ge fragments, almost identical in size to the as-oxidized Ge islands formed from the original SiGe nanopillars. With further silicon dioxide generation, the Ge ‘dew drops’ subsequently migrate outward, from the core of the original monolithic Ge QD from which they came with increasing time through the increase in the thickness of the SiO2 layers separating them. Eventually, Si atom diffusion from the substrate to the dew drops slows down as the oxide thickness between them and the substrate increases. This decreased supply of Si atoms results in the oxide layers between the dewdrops www.selleckchem.com/products/pci-34051.html achieving a limiting thickness of 4 to 8 nm (Figure 3c). Conclusion We have observed the unique and Crenolanib in vivo anomalous phenomenon of completely different Ge QD growth and migration

behaviors within Si3N4 layers versus within the Si

substrate during high-temperature oxidation. The Ge migration behavior and morphology change appears to be directly dependent on the Si flux generated during the oxidation of Si-containing layers. When the flux of Si is low (as in the case of the Si3N4), the Ge migrates as a large, spherical QD that grows at the expense of smaller Ge nuclei. In contrast, when the Si flux is high, as in the oxidation of the Si Branched chain aminotransferase substrate (enhanced by the formation of a thin SiGe shell), internal defect sites within the QD become activated as sites for Si oxidation, causing QD to explode and almost regress to its origins as smaller separated Ge nuclei. Acknowledgements This work was supported by the National Science Council of R. O. C. (NSC 101-3113-P-008-008 and NSC-99-2221-E-008-095-MY3). References 1. Ekimov AI, Onushchenko AA: Quantum size effect in three-dimensional microscopic semiconductor crystals. JETP Lett 1981,34(6):345–349. 2. Robledo L, Elzerman J, Jundt G, Atature M, Hogele A, Falt S, Imamoglu A: Conditional dynamics of interacting quantum dots. Science 2008,320(5877):772–775.CrossRef 3. Astafiev O, Inomata K, Niskanen AO, Yamamoto T, Pashkin YA, Nakamura Y, Tsai JS: Single artificial-atom lasing. Nature 2007,449(7162):588–590.CrossRef 4. Tiwari S, Rana F, Chan K, Shi L, Hanafi H: Single charge and confinement effects in nano-crystal memories.

It is reported that valence instabilities are an interesting and general phenomenon for rare earth ions in their compounds, for example, mixed valences, valence fluctuations, and

surface valence transitions [24–27]. Our present work provides an opportunity to study further valence instabilities of Eu in EuTiO3 and their resultant properties. Figure 3 HRXRD longitudinal scans and XRD pole figure. (a) Symmetric HRXRD longitudinal ω- 2θ scans of the as-grown and postannealed EuTiO3 films on SrTiO3(001) substrate. (b) XRD 211 pole figure of the as-grown sample. The elemental composition of the films was then analyzed by XPS, which was taken within a binding energy scan range from 0 to 1,300 eV. No signals pertinent to K+ cation can be found, indicating that the films have no incorporation of K from the solvent. The Eu 3d and Ti 2p core-level XPS spectra of the as-grown sample are shown

in Figure 4a,b, respectively. selleck chemicals The results clearly exhibit that the as-grown sample consists of mixed Eu2+, Eu3+, and Ti4+ cations, in agreement with the peak positions of the cations shown in the XPS spectra from other studies [25–29]. The presence of Eu3+ indicates the necessity of anion excess in the as-grown films for charge balance and may affect the crystal lattice and magnetic properties of the films, which will be discussed later on. The Eu selleck products 3d core-level XPS spectra of the annealed sample are shown in Figure 4a, which reveals a reduction of Eu3+ quantity. The Ti 2p core-level XPS spectra of the annealed sample not only are dominated by the Ti4+ contribution but also plausibly exhibit the Ti3+

shoulders, as shown in Figure 4b. These results reflect a necessity to lose part of the ionic charge during the annealing process for charge compensation. Further investigations are necessary to understand the chemical details of the films and annealing process. Figure 4 XPS spectra of the as-grown and postannealed samples. (a) A comparison of the Eu 3d core-level XPS spectra between the as-grown and postannealed samples. (b) Ti 2p core-level XPS spectra of the as-grown and postannealed Oxaprozin samples. It is important to realize the possible inclusion of water or hydroxyl in the as-grown films. Such issues have been reported in various perovskites prepared hydrothermally [30–32]. These impurities can contribute to charge balance in the as-prepared perovskites and be removed by annealing to produce defects, which when coupled with a metal can account for charge Selleckchem Eltanexor compensation [30, 31]. Thus, our films were studied by FTIR. Figure 5 shows the FTIR spectra of the as-grown and postannealed samples for a comparison. No peaks pertinent to water or hydroxyl can be seen and resolved from the spectra; hence, the presence of water or hydroxyl and their resultant charge balance/compensation mechanisms are excluded in our films.

Cancer Res 2004, 64: 5632–42.CrossRefPubMed

29. Green NK, Morrison J, Hale S, Briggs SS, Stevenson M, Subr V, Ulbrich K, Chandler L, Mautner V, Seymour LW, Fisher KD: Retargeting Citarinostat polymer-coated adenovirus to the FGF receptor allows productive infection and mediates efficacy in a peritoneal model of human selleck inhibitor ovarian cancer. J Gene Med 2008, 10: 280–9.CrossRefPubMed 30. Barnett BG, Crews CJ, Douglas JT: Targeted adenoviral vectors. Biochim Biophys Acta 2002, 1575: 1–14.PubMed 31. Wickham TJ: Targeting adenovirus. Gene Ther 2000, 7: 110–4.CrossRefPubMed 32. Parker AL, Waddington SN, Nicol CG, Shayakhmetov DM, Buckley SM, Denby L, Kemball-Cook G, Ni S, Lieber A, McVey JH, Nicklin SA, Baker AH: Multiple vitamin K-dependent coagulation zymogens promote adenovirus-mediated gene delivery to hepatocytes. Blood 2006, 8: 2554–61.CrossRef 33. Reynolds PN, Nicklin SA, Kaliberova L, Boatman BG, Grizzle WE, Balyasnikova IV: Combined transductional and transcriptional targeting improves the specifcity of transgene expression in vivo.

Nat Biotechnol 2001, 19: 838–842.CrossRefPubMed 34. Reynolds PN, Zinn KR, Gavrilyuk SCH772984 VD, Balyasnikova IV, Rogers BE, Buchsbaum DJ: A targetable, injectable adenoviral vector for selective gene delivery to pulmonary endothelium in vivo. Mol Ther 2000, 2: 562–578.CrossRefPubMed Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Authors’ contributions LPY carried out transfection and viral preparation, animal experiment and histological analysis, and drafted the manuscript. PC carried out TUNEL staining and performed statistical analyses. XCP contributed to animal experiment and revised the manuscript. HSS, WHH, FYC and STL contributed to animal experiment. LY offered Adenovirus and designed the topic. YQW supervised

experimental work and revised the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.”
“Background The kinetochore learn more is a large protein complex assembled on centromere DNA and kinetochore dysfunction is an important source for chromosome instability [1, 2]. More than 60 kinetochore proteins have been identified in yeast in recent years [3–5]. Multiple kinetochore proteins have been shown to be deregulated in human cancers, which suggests an important role of kinetochore for chromosome instability and cancer development [6–9]. CENP-H was initially identified in the mouse centromere as a fundamental component of the active centromere [10, 11]. Human CENP-H presented at the inner plate of kinetochore throughout the cell cycle, co-localized with CENP-A and CENP-C, and was necessary for the appropriate localization of CENP-C [10–13].

All bands are assigned to Thy; the bands assigned to graphene oxide are noted. To determine the enhancement factor of the CARS signal for the Thy/GO complex relative to Thy, the filling factor and the conditions of the CARS experiment should be evaluated. In CARS experiments, the radiation comes from the space volume of approximately 1 μm3. Such volume

can contain approximately 109 molecules of Thy (without graphene). When GO is added to Thy, in accord with our estimation, the number of Thy molecules within the mentioned volume is approximately 108. Then, taking into account these assumptions and the difference between the intensity of XAV-939 solubility dmso the CARS signal for the Thy/GO complex and Thy from Figure 8 (approximately 104), we could obtain that the CARS enhancement factor is equal to approximately 105. The enhancement obviously arises from those molecules of Thy which are in close proximity to the surface of GO. The number of such Thy molecules is really lower than the whole number of the molecules in the volume.

So, the obtained estimation of the enhancement factor should be considered as the lower limit. It could also Kinase Inhibitor Library be mentioned that the value of the enhancement factor is not the same for the whole range from 1,200 to 3,300 cm-1. It is the maximum for the NH and CH stretching modes which usually appear in 3,000- to 3,200-cm-1

range (Figure 8b). The enhancement effect of the CARS spectrum of the Thy/GO complex seems to be similar to that of SECARS (Figure 8), and it could Urease be named as graphene oxide-enhanced CARS (GECARS), analogous to the graphene-enhanced Raman scattering (GERS) technique, in which graphene can be used as a www.selleckchem.com/products/CP-690550.html substrate for SERS of adsorbed molecules [9, 11, 39]. SERS enhancement is typically explained by CM [40] and EM [1, 41–43] mechanisms. CM is based on charge transfer between the probed molecule and the substrate. On the other hand, the origin of EM mechanism is connected with great increase of the local electric field caused by plasmon resonance in nanosized metals, such as Ag and Au [41]. These two mechanisms always contribute simultaneously to the overall enhancement, and it is usually thought that EM provides the main enhancement.

Comparisons with CP43, CP47, D1–D2-cyt-b-559 fragments. J Lumin 108:97–100CrossRef Phillips WA (1972) Tunneling states in amorphous solids. J Low Temp Phys 7:351–360CrossRef Phillips WA (1981) Amorphous solids: low temperature properties. Springer, Berlin Phillips WA (1987) Two-level states in glasses. Rep Prog Phys 50:1657–1708CrossRef Prokhorenko VI, Holzwarth AR (2000) Primary processes and structure of the photosystem II reaction center: a photon echo study. J Phys Chem B 104:11563–11578CrossRef

Putikka WO, Huber DL (1987) Optical linewidths and photon-echo decays of impurities in glasses. Phys Rev B 36:3436–3441CrossRef Rätsep M, Hunter CN, Olsen JD, Freiberg A (2005) Band structure and local dynamics of excitons in bacterial light-harvesting complexes revealed by spectrally selective spectroscopy. Milciclib ic50 Photosynth Res 86:37–48PubMedCrossRef Reddy NRS, Small GJ, Seibert M, Picorel R (1991) Energy-transfer dynamics of the B800–B850 antenna complex RGFP966 research buy of Rhodobacter sphaeroides: a hole see more burning study. Chem Phys Lett 181:391–399CrossRef Reddy NRS, Picorel

R, Small GJ (1992) B896 and B870 components of the Rhodobacter sphaeroides antenna: a hole burning study. J Phys Chem 96:6458–6464CrossRef Reddy NRS, Cogdell RJ, Zhao L, Small GJ (1993) Non-photochemical hole burning of the B800–B850 antenna complex of Rhodopseudomonas acidophila. Photochem Photobiol 57:35–39CrossRef Reinot T, Zazubovich V, Hayes JM, Small GJ (2001) New insights for on persistent non-photochemical hole burning and its application to photosynthetic complexes. J Phys Chem B 105:5083–5098CrossRef Rhee KH, Morris EP, Zheleva D, Hankamer B, Kühlbrandt W, Barber J (1997) Two-dimensional structure of plant photosystem II at 8 Å resolution. Nature 389:522–526CrossRef

Richter MF, Baier J, Southall J, Cogdell RJ, Oellerich S, Köhler J (2008) Spectral diffusion of the lowest exciton component in the core complex from Rhodopseudomonas palustris studied by single-molecule spectroscopy. Photosynth Res 95:285–290PubMedCrossRef Rigler R, Orrit M, Basché T (eds) (2001) Single-molecule spectroscopy. Springer, Berlin Roelofs TA, Kwa SLS, van Grondelle R, Dekker JP, Holzwarth AR (1993) Primary processes and structure of the photosystem II reaction center: II. Low-temperature picosecond fluorescence kinetics of a D1-D2-cyt-b-559 reaction-center complex isolated by short Triton exposure. Biochim Biophys Acta 1143:147–157CrossRef Rutkauskas D, Novoderezkhin V, Cogdell RJ, van Grondelle R (2004) Fluorescence spectral fluctuations of single LH2 complexes from Rhodopseudomonas acidophila strain 10050. Biochemistry 43:4431–4438PubMedCrossRef Rutkauskas D, Olsen J, Gall A, Cogdell RJ, Hunter CN, van Grondelle R (2006) Comparative study of spectral flexibilities of bacterial light-harvesting complexes: structural implications.

These results indicate that members of group B are subject to a higher rate of recombination than group A. We could hypothesise that the clonal structure of subgroup A was due to lack of natural genetic competence as described for DSM13 (isogenic to ATCC14580) [53, 54]. Surprisingly, the genetically competent strain NVH1082/9945A [55] had identical ST (ST1) to the non-competent type strain ATCC14580, a fact that undermines our hypothesis. Figure

2 MST (Minimum Spanning Tree) analysis. The network was generated in Bionumerics v. 6.6 (Applied Maths) using character data in default mode. Each circle represents a ST and the type number is indicated next to the circle. The areal of the Bafilomycin A1 clinical trial circle corresponds to the number of Cytoskeletal Signaling inhibitor strains represented by each ST. Thick solid lines connect STs that differ at only one locus. Thin, solid lines connect STs that differ at two loci. JNJ-26481585 Dotted lines connect STs that differs at three loci. The distances (in terms of number of locus variants) are also indicated next to the branches. STs of group

A are coloured green while STs of group B are coloured red. In cases were recombination is rare it is generally recommended to concatenate the sequences before calculating dendograms [56]. This concatenated dendogram corresponded well with the allel-based dendogram and is presented in Additional file 3. A small difference between the allel-based and the Alanine-glyoxylate transaminase concatenated dendogram was observed. NVH1032 (ST8) was positioned slightly closer to group A isolates in the latter. When examining individual loci, NVH1032 (ST8) clustered together with group A for all loci apart from adk. It is therefore reasonable to assume that NVH1032 (ST8) could be regarded as a group A member. However, none of the MLST allels of NVH1032 was shared by any other strains in our collection (Additional file 2) underpinning the genetic distinction of NVH1032 (ST8) from the other strains. Conclusions A robust and portable typing scheme for B. licheniformis was established. This method, based on six

house-keeping genes separated the species into two distinct lineages. These two lineages seem to have evolved differently. The food spoilage strain NVH1032 was distantly related to all other strains evaluated. The MLST scheme developed in the present study could be used for further studying of evolution and population genetics of B. licheniformis. Acknowledgements We thank Ingjerd Thrane for valuable technical assistance in order to complete this work. The work was supported by grants from the Norwegian Research Council (grant 178299/I10) and the Norwegian Defence Research Establishment (FFI). Electronic supplementary material Additional file 1: Cluster analysis of individual MLST candidate loci.