Sílvio Sanches Veiga for the Alexa 488 anti-mouse

immunoglobulin G. This work was supported by HDAC inhibitor Fapemig and Fundação Araucária/PPSUS (11403/192). Conflict of interest statement: The authors declare that this research was conducted in the absence of any commercial relationship that could create a potential conflict of interest. “
“Many earlier studies have demonstrated that rotaviruses, like any other enteric viruses are shed in stools and primarily transmitted through fecal-oral route, person-to-person contact and fomites [1] and [2]. There has been evidence that rotaviruses may also be transmitted to individuals through respiratory droplets [2], [3] and [4]. The human rotavirus vaccine strain, HRV mimics natural rotavirus infection, replicates in the intestine of the vaccinated infants and provides protection against future rotavirus infections [5]. Studies with the human rotavirus vaccine have demonstrated that the vaccine virus is shed in the stools of vaccinated infants, with the peak shedding observed on Day 7 after first dose (76–80% of infants after Dose 1 and 18–29% of infants after Dose 2) [6]. Due

to the shedding of infectious vaccine virus in stools, there is a theoretical possibility for vaccine virus to be transmitted to unvaccinated or naive infants—a process similar to that observed in natural wild-type rotavirus infection mTOR inhibitor [7]. Such transmissions are possibly expected from any live attenuated vaccines such as oral polio vaccine [8]. The phenomenon of transmission of the rotavirus vaccine strain to unvaccinated individuals raises questions about

the safety of the vaccine and the possibility of conferring indirect protection particularly in developing country settings where the vaccine coverage might be incomplete as compared to the developed countries [9]. The current study was the first of its kind that explored the possibility of horizontal transmission of the HRV rotavirus vaccine strain from one twin who received HRV vaccine to the other twin who received placebo Dipeptidyl peptidase living under the same household. The immunogenicity and safety of the rotavirus vaccine in transmission cases was also assessed. This phase IIIb, randomized (1:1), placebo-controlled, double-blind study conducted at one urban site in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic (106260/NCT00396630). Baseline data from all major pediatric hospitals and nurseries was obtained in advance. Parents were informed of the study by presentations at maternity centers, distribution of brochures in health centers and by providing information to pregnant women and new parents visiting maternity centers and vaccination sites. Pairs of healthy twins living in the same household, aged 6–14 weeks at the time of enrolment, born after a gestational period of ≥32 weeks attending local primary healthcare centers, were referred to the site and recruited by the participating physicians.

HC2 positive specimens were genotyped using the Linear Array HPV Genotyping (LA) test (Roche Molecular Systems). Although all learn more HR HPV types detectable by the HC2/LA algorithm were also detectable using our in-house test, detection rates may be expected to differ between tests. This potential source of bias in our findings on comparison with

the pre-immunisation data was informed by the re-testing of a panel (N = 428) of HC2 positive and negative specimens from the pre-immunisation (2008) survey with the in-house Luminex-based test. This showed the post-immunisation test generated more HR HPV positives than the HC2/LA testing algorithm, likely due to the reduced sensitivity of the HC2 test compared to a PCR amplification based system [10]. However, there was close agreement between the two approaches for detection of HPV 16/18 (positivity of 23.8% by the in house genotyping test vs. 22.2% by HC2/LA, kappa 0.809), and HPV 31/33/45 (11.2% vs. 11.4%, kappa 0.756). Difference in detection of non-vaccine HR HPV was greater (27.8% vs. 23.6%, kappa 0.768) and may be important for interpretation of prevalence differences. We compared reported characteristics of subjects in the post-immunisation period to those of subjects in the pre-immunisation period to investigate any differences associated with HPV

prevalence. Several sub-analyses were conducted to check that key findings were not sensitive to potential biases due to differences in the selection of specimens collected pre- and post-immunisation. Data were weighted so Panobinostat datasheet that each laboratory contributed equally to the analysis, rather than in proportion to the number of specimens submitted (as in the pre-immunisation survey). Prevalence TCL estimates were calculated for the following outcomes: (i) vaccine-type HPV (16/18) (ii) non-vaccine HR HPV, (iii) any HR HPV and (iv) HR types for which cross-protection has been reported.

Confidence intervals (95% CI) were calculated using a logit transformation. Logistic regression was used to explore the association of HPV prevalence with the period of collection (i.e. a binary variable classified as pre or post the start of the HPV immunisation programme), adjusting for age, submitting laboratory, chlamydia screening venue, ethnicity, sexual behaviour and chlamydia infection. The association was expressed as odds ratios (ORs) and confidence intervals (95% CI) calculated using linearised standard errors to show statistical significance. Data analyses were conducted using Stata v12. Of 4664 VVS specimens tested for type-specific HPV DNA, 4178 (90%) had a valid result and were included in the analysis: 234 from 2010, 2691 from 2011 and 1253 from 2012 (Fig. 1). The source and reported demographic and sexual behaviour data for these specimens are shown in Table 1, alongside the data for the pre-immunisation (baseline) specimens.

One of the best and most common ways to monitor bone health

is by having a bone mineral density (BMD) test. If don’t already have A-1210477 price osteoporosis but could be at risk, a BMD can help doctor to predict likelihood of having a fracture. Repeated BMD tests allow the doctor to compare the results and see if patients are losing bone or maintaining it. A BMD is also used to confirm an osteoporosis diagnosis; in fact, it’s the only test than can diagnose osteoporosis. Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA, formerly DEXA) is considered the gold standard for the diagnosis of osteoporosis.9, 10 and 11 Bone densitometry is a safe, fast, and exact test. By the way DXA is an expensive detection tool and could not be use as a screening method to all population thus our study aim to identify the high risk group and their associated osteoporosis risk factors which is notable when Selleck Afatinib will be apply in future public health policy and programs.12 Osteoporosis is a substantial cause of morbidity

and mortality and affects 25 million Americans, predominantly postmenopausal women.13 The National Osteoporosis Foundation estimates direct and indirect costs associated with this disorder to be $18 billion, with $7 billion related to hip fractures alone.10 and 14 White women aged 50 years have a 40% chance of sustaining an osteoporosis-related fracture during the remainder of their lifetimes.15 and 16 Hip fracture is of particular concern because of the 20% chance of excess mortality within 1 year of the event.7 Osteoporosis is an extremely important problem in primary care where most postmenopausal women are seen for physician visits. Among the 20 million women nationally

with osteoporosis, only 4 million have been diagnosed with this disorder. About 1.3 million osteoporotic fractures occur each year in the United States.14 The present study has been taken up to Suplatast tosilate assess the effect of these risk factors and lifestyle on BMD of the study group and consequent awareness plane for the target population to prevent osteoporosis. A cross-sectional hospital-based study has been performed to investigate 200 osteoporosis suspected women aged 45–65 referring to Atieh Hospital in Tehran, Iran. It is a questionnaire based study which involves data on dietary habit, medication, physical activity, and lifestyle (such as smoking, alcohol, tea, coffee, and soda consumption). Data collected for this study included filling questionnaires through personal interviews, use of case records, files and documents. The questionnaire covered the following factors and information: demographic characteristics (including age, marital status), menstrual and obstetrical history (menarche age, age of menopause, parity and abortion) and medical condition and medication. Medical condition included (history of endocrine disorders like diabetes and thyroid, heart disease, kidney, asthma, and other related medical problem).

, 2005, Rautava et al., 2012, Steel et al., 2005, Gosalbes et al., 2013 and Aagaard et al., 2014). However, the mechanism by which the

maternal gut bacteria gain access to the developing fetus is not well understood and needs to be further characterized. Nevertheless, during vaginal delivery, the amniotic fluid is exposed to a complex microbial world within the birth canal and ingestion of this fluid by offspring likely serves as a primary mode of widespread maternal microbial transmission (Mackie et al., 1999). Notably, the gastric content and bacterial serotypes isolated from the nasopharynxes of newborns were similar to those of their mothers’ vagina immediately before birth (Bettelheim et al., 1974 and Brook et al., 1979). Additionally, Streptococcus or Lactobacillus dominance in the maternal vagina has been associated with Ku-0059436 concentration a similar predominance pattern in her offspring’s gut ( Mändar GPCR Compound Library purchase and Mikelsaar, 1996), and Lactobacillus species of maternal origin (e.g., L. crispatus, L. fermentum, L. gasseri, and L. vaginalis) have been isolated from infant fecal samples ( Matsumiya et al., 2002 and Carlsson and Gothefors, 1975). Importantly, a variety of environmental

factors may disrupt the vertical transmission of microbiota with potential impacts on early development (Wopereis et al., 2014). Widespread obstetric practices such as vaginal cleansing with disinfectants and application of antiseptic creams shortly before birth have been shown to reduce maternal transmission of Streptococcus agalactiae, a bacteria involved in group B streptococcal (GBS) sepsis in the newborn ( Stray-Pederson et al., 1999). However, until the spectrum of activity of these disinfectants includes many beneficial microbes such as Lactobacillus and its use has been attributed

in preventing colonization of the newborn with commensal bacteria from the maternal vagina ( Tannock et al., 1990). Moreover, administration of intrapartum antibiotics as a preemptive prophylaxis against GBS infection leads to dysbiosis of the vaginal flora characterized by a shift from a Lactobacillus-dominant environment to an antibiotic-resistant polymicrobial mixture such as Klebsiella, Citrobacter, Enterobacter, and Escherichia coli ( Tanaka et al., 2009, Keski-Nisula et al., 2013, Fallani et al., 2010 and Newton and Wallace, 1998). Vertical transmission of these antibiotic-resistant coliforms influences early colonization patterns of the neonate and the effects of maternal antibiotic treatment on offspring gut microbiota persist well after cessation of treatment ( Tanaka et al., 2009, Keski-Nisula et al., 2013, Fallani et al., 2010 and Newton and Wallace, 1998). More recent rodent studies have shown that maternal exposure to low dose antibiotics during lactation depleted Lactobacillus abundance, increased fat mass, and altered metabolic hormones in offspring ( Cox et al., 2014 and Cox and Blaser, 2013).

The dissolution of the samples was studied, using dissolution apparatus II (USP) by paddle method (Sisco). The dissolution medium was 900 mL of 0.1 N HCl (pH 1.2), maintained at 37 ± 0.5 °C. The stirring speed was 50 rpm. The accurately weighed sample equivalent to75 mg of IBS was added to the dissolution medium. A 5.0 mL sample solution was drawn at appropriate time intervals through 0.45 μm Millipore filter. An equal volume of fresh dissolution medium was immediately

Baf-A1 supplier replaced. The concentration of IBS at each sampling time was analysed by Double Beam UV–Visiblespectrophotometry-3600 (Shimadzu, Japan) at 244 nm. The experiments were performed in triplicate. The mean concentration of the IBS was plotted Everolimus against time. SSD equivalent to 75 mg of IBS were weighed accurately and dissolved in 10 mL of methanol. The stock solutions were further diluted with 0.1 N HCl (pH 1.2) and analyzed by UV–Visible-3600 (Shimadzu, Japan) at 244 nm. Mean dissolution time (MDT)

was calculated from dissolution data using the following equation MDT=∑i=1nMidTime×ΔmΔm Dissolution efficiency was calculated by the method given by Khan and Rhodes in 1975 and is defined as follows: Dissolutionefficiency(D.E.)=∫t1t2y×dty100×(t2−t1)×100%Where, y is the percentage of dissolved product, D.E. is then the area under the dissolution curve between time points t1 and t2 expressed as a percentage of the curve at maximum dissolution, y100, over the same time period. The P-XRD of pure Irbesartan (Fig. 1) exhibited sharp, highly intense and less diffused peak indicating, the crystalline nature of drug. It showed diffraction peak at 2θ degree of 4.7°, 12.42°, 13.42°, 19.38°, 23.14°, and 27.62°. In surface solid dispersion same peaks were observed but with the low intensity of the peaks. This indicates the decrease in crystallinity in SSDs when compared to the pure state of the drug. This may be probably due to dilution of the

drug. No new peak was detected and hence there was no polymorphic transition of the drug taking place. The DSC profiles of IBS and surface solid dispersion were prepared by co-evaporation method. DSC analysis of crystalline IBS showed a single sharp fusion endotherm at 183.50 °C as shown in Fig. 2. It is revealed from DSC thermogram through of SSD that there is decrease in sharpness and intensity of characteristic endothermic peak of drug which could be attributed to the conversion of most of the crystalline form of the drug to the amorphous form. FTIR–spectra (Fig. 3) of IBS and surface solid dispersion reveals the characteristic absorption peaks of IBS at 3435 cm−1 (N–H stretching vibrations), 1731 cm−1 (stretching vibration of carbonyl functional groups) 1622 cm−1 (C–N stretching vibrations), 1485.77 cm−1 (C C stretching). The FTIR study revealed the characteristic peaks of IBS which were also present in the all formulations. It showed that there is no interaction between drug and excipients.

We do not model the effect of treatment on disease transmission. We assume that the baseline level of treatment utilization results in the realized baseline incidence and mortality rates in the population. In addition, we assume that the demand and supply of treatment for individuals with disease is equivalent across all simulation scenarios. Treatment costs for DPT and measles are estimated from the National Sample Survey (NSS) 60th round schedule 25 [19], and treatment costs for rotavirus are from Tate et al. [9]. All costs in the model are in 2013 US dollars. Total routine immunization cost is the sum of costs for vaccines,

personnel, vehicles and transportation, cold chain equipment and maintenance, and program and other Antidiabetic Compound Library recurrent costs, including planning, supervision, monitoring, and surveillance. The data were collected from the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW) by personal communication. We use the WHO comprehensive multi-year planning (cMYP) for immunization tool

to analyze the data and assume that interventions are introduced in 2016. Costs include program as well as vaccine costs and are not separable by vaccine type. Baseline vaccination coverage rates are from 2011 estimates Depsipeptide in vivo [14]. The gross domestic product (GDP) per capita for India is from the World Bank [20]. The distribution across wealth quintiles is from NSS expenditure data. The state-level GDP per capita is from the Indian government’s Press Information Bureau [21]. IndiaSim is an iterative, stochastic ABM. The model comprises 67 regions, representing the urban and rural areas of 34 Indian states and districts. Nagaland is not included in the model because it is omitted from DLHS-3, and the

urban area of Andaman and Nicobar is dropped because of a low number of observations. Each region comprises a set of representative households. A set of characteristics describes each household (socioeconomic indicators) and its individuals (age and sex). An iteration of a simulation represents a day (the timestep of the model). Rutecarpine Individuals in the model are in one of several disease states: they are healthy or they suffer from diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus, measles, and/or rotavirus. They contract diseases based on a stochastic function of their characteristics (age, sex, and wealth quintile) and their immunization history. Those suffering from disease seek treatment at public or private facilities based on the average treatment-seeking rates by income quintile in the DLHS-3 data. Births in the model are based on a household-level probit regression model that is bounded to the state-level fertility rates [12]. Deaths not related to the five diseases in the model are determined on the basis of WHO life tables [22].

NMR (1H- and 13C

NMR) spectra were recorded at 300 MHz Tenofovir research buy for 1H and 75 MHz for 13C on a Varian Mercury 300. The δ-values are reported as ppm relative to TMS in DMSO-d6 and J-values are in Hz. ESI–MS spectra were measured on mass spectrometer connected to an ESI-II ion source (Finnigan, LC–MS LCQdeca Advantage MAX, Finnigan Surveyor LC pump) (Department of Biological Genetics, NRC, Cairo, Egypt). ELISA reader (BioRad, München, Germany) was used in measuring the absorbance of viable cells in the proliferation assay. Concentration of extracts was done at low temperature under vacuum using Rotatory evaporator (Bűchi G, Switzerland). Shimadzu UV 240 spectrophotometer was used for UV analysis. Leaves of Ruprechtia salicifolia were collected from El-Orman Garden, Giza, Egypt in April 2010. Identification of the plant was confirmed by Dr. Tearse Labib, Department of Flora and Taxonomy, El-Orman Garden, Cairo, Egypt. Voucher specimen (Reg. no. R.s-7) was kept in the Herbarium of the Department www.selleckchem.com/products/BI6727-Volasertib.html of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Helwan University, Cairo, Egypt. Polyamide 6S (Riedel-De Hän Ag, Seelze Hannover, Germany), cellulose (Pharmacia, Uppsala, Sweden) and Sephadex (Fluka, Switzerland) were used in chromatography. Sugars, reagents and solvents of

analytical grade were purchased from Sigma–Aldrich Co. (St Louise, Mo, USA). Chemicals used in biological activity; Griess reagent (0.2% naphthylenediamine dihydrochloride + 5% phosphoric acid, dissolved in 1 ml deionized water), used for evaluation of anti-inflammatory activity and MTT (3-(4,5-dimethyl-2-thiazolyl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide), used for cytotoxic activity, were both purchased from Sigma–Aldrich Co. (St. Louise, MO, USA). Tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) commercial kit below used in determination of anti-inflammatory activity was purchased from Endogen Inc. (Cambridge, MA, USA). Authentic reference of flavonoid compounds

were obtained from Phytochemistry Laboratory, Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Texas at Austin, (Austin, TX, USA). Hepatocellular carcinoma (Hep-G2), breast adenocarcinoma (MCF-7), colon carcinoma (HCT-116), and Raw murine macrophage (RAW 264.7), were purchased from ATCC, (VA, USA). Hep-G2 and MCF-7 cells were routinely cultured in DMEM (Dulbeco’s Modified Eagle’s Medium), while HCT-116 cells were grown in Mc Coy’s medium at 37 °C in humidified air containing 5% CO2 and RAW 264.7 cells were grown in phenol red-free RPMI-1640. Media were supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS), 2 mM l-glutamine, containing 100 units/ml penicillin G sodium, 100 units/ml streptomycin sulfate and 250 ng/ml amphotericin B. Monolayer cells were harvested by trypsin/EDTA treatment, except for RAW 264.7 cells, which were collected by gentle scraping. The tested compounds were dissolved in dimethyl sulphoxide (DMSO, 99.9%, HPLC grade) and then diluted to 1000-fold during the assay.

19 They live in small huts with mud walls, bamboo doors and strong roof thatched with grass and straw. The tribal hamlets called ‘hadies’ have been segregated from main villages and their socio-economic condition is comparatively in a bad shape GSK1349572 where the facilities like permanent housing, drinking water, electrification, roads, educational facilities, health and sanitation are quite poor. Modern health care facility is still an outlandish

in many hadies. Nevertheless, Government has established few Primary Health Centres (Allopathic) they deficient in many elementary amenities including the physicians. Common health problems faced by these ethnic groups are malnutrition, worm infections, skin diseases, diarrhoea,

jaundice, diabetes, fever & stomach ache. They have a tremendous inherited knowledge of folk medicine. Information on the use of medicinal plants was gathered during Aug 2010–Sep 2012 through field surveys in different ethnic hadies in the three taluks – Somwarpet, Virajpet and Madikeri of Kodagu district. The conventional ethnobotanical methods endorsed by Botanical SB203580 supplier Survey of India were followed in the survey. 10 The information was collected through conducting interviews, discussion and field observation with herbal healers and knowledgeable elder people of the study area using semi-structured questionnaire comprising the information about plants and their local names, to which disease used for, parts used, method of drug preparation, mode of administration, dosage, specific comments if any. The ethnomedicinal information thus obtained was confirmed by cross checking with respondents and also with the former patients residing in the same or neighbouring villages. The data collected was compared with the already existing literature. Plant specimens of medicinal importance were collected

with the help of folk practitioners and identified using standard flora. 3 and 7 The identified plants were made into herbarium and were compared with the herbarium sheets kept at Department of Studies in Botany, University of Mysore, Mysore for further taxonomic identification and accuracy of species and the voucher specimens were deposited in the Department afore-said. The important ethnobotanical medroxyprogesterone species of Kodagu district have been enumerated here alphabetically along with botanical names with citation, family name, local names, ethnobotanical uses followed by name of the herbal healers [Table 1]. The study revealed the ethnobotanical information of 126 plant species belonging to 48 Dicot and 12 Monocot families – Table 1. Of the total 126 species documented, 109 are growing wild and 17 are cultivated. Most plants used in the treatment were herbs (69 species) trees (21 species) and rarely climbers (18 species) and shrubs (18 species).

The highest affinity was predicted for NET (charged: −830 kcal/mol; neutral: −820 kcal/mol), followed by DAT (charged: −798 kcal/mol neutral: −792 kcal/mol) and SERT (charged: −697 kcal/mol neutral: −683 kcal/mol); nevertheless, scores alone have limited predictive power ( Warren et al., 2006) and require confirmation by other means. This limitation, however, is less relevant in our approach, because the same ligand is docked into almost identical binding sites. The observed phenylalanine – tyrosine substitution between NET and DAT is very conservative, but it introduces a polar hydroxyl function Duvelisib in vivo by contrast with the

hydrophobic phenylalanine side-chain. Importantly, the phenyl ring of levamisole directly contacts residue F151 in NET or residue Y155 in DAT in our docking poses, which is consistent with the experimental data. Our inhibition experiments showed that binding affinities of levamisole for SERT were lower when compared to that for NET and DAT. The binding

site differs by five residues between DAT and SERT (residues Y95, G100, I172, Y175 and T497 in SERT) and by four residues between NET and SERT (residue Y95, G100, I172 and T497 in SERT). Levamisole was found to be in direct contact with four of these selleck screening library residues. We only observed that residue T497 was not in direct contact with the inhibitor. In line with our experimental findings, the difference in affinity between SERT and NET or DAT was therefore recapitulated by our computational approach. The active metabolite of levamisole (aminorex) binds with comparable affinity to DAT and NET, while the affinity to SERT is lower (see Fig. 5). Aminorex is smaller than levamisole. During our docking studies of aminorex, we applied the same protocol as used for levamisole and identified

docking poses in the central binding site S1. Both, neutral and positively charged forms of aminorex have been docked, as the pKa of this psychostimulant is 7.4. We observed similar poses for both protonation states and discuss here the results of the positively charged state, Montelukast Sodium as endogenous substrates are typically transported in their charged form. The positively charged nitrogen of aminorex interacts in a similar way with the aspartate (D75 in NET, D79 in DAT, D98 in SERT) as found for levamisole or nortriptyline in the recently published dDAT structure ( Penmatsa et al., 2013). The rank order of the binding energies scores (IFD score) compares favorably with the experimentally found affinities: NET (−822 kcal/mol), DAT (−789 kcal/mol) and SERT (−693 kcal/mol). Docking poses revealed overlapping geometries for the interaction of aminorex with NET and DAT (see Fig. 7B). Aminorex is in direct contact with Y151 in NET or F155 in DAT which could help to explain the observed differences in affinity. Importantly, the docking pose in SERT is different.

Council of Scientific and Industrial Research and Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. of India are thanked for financial support. “
“In Ayurvedic Indian traditional systems of medicine, the plant Stereospermum chelonoides belonging to the family Bignoniaceae is known as Patala. It is one among the ten root ingredients of Dasamula. 1 Traditionally, the roots are used both as an individual drug and also in combinations based on the requirement in treating various diseases, such as oedema, blood disorders, bronchial asthma, vomiting, jaundice, rheumatism, paralysis, filarial and post-natal care to avoid secondary complications.

2 The roots of S. chelonoides are reported to contain p-coumaric acid, triacontanol, 3 cetyl alcohol, selleck compound oleic, palmitic, stearic acid, lapachol, dehydro-alpha-lapachone and dehydrotectol in root heartwood; β-sistosterol and n-triacontal from root bark 4; 6-O-Gluco scutellarein isolated as minor compound along with stereolensin (6-O-beta-D-glucosyl-luteolin) from leaves. 5p-Coumaric acid is a flavonoid with several potential therapeutic activities like antioxidant, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antitumour and hepatoprotective.

6 and 7 Earlier studies proved that Dasamula capsules show a significant effect on primary neurological disorders. 4 Due to its potential therapeutic properties the annual MAPK Inhibitor Library consumption of Dasamula raw drugs by herbal industries was estimated to be >1000 MT. 8 Bumetanide With respect to S. chelonoides it is estimated to be 1000–2000 MT/year at the price of 20–30 Rs/kg. The plant drug Patala is of particular interest due to its therapeutic uses but at the same time few controversies also exist in relation to the plant parts and species being used as an authentic raw drug. The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India (API) describes roots9 and stem bark of S. chelonoides as an authentic candidate for Patala. 10 Literature emerged from classic

texts recommends S. tetragonum and R. xylocarpa belonging to the same family, Bignoniaceae can also be used as Patala 11 ( Fig. 1). As the synonyms mentioned to describe Patala in Ayurvedic text is not enough to differentiate the species, these controversies had led to drug adulteration which ultimately affects the public health. In order to overcome these confusions an attempt has been made to facilitate the rapid and secure method to distinguish the species recommended as Patala, by using pharmacognostic standards. The authentic root field samples of S. chelonoides, S. tetragonum/(Stereospermum colais) and R. xylocarpa were collected from different geographical locations across India. The identification of these samples were confirmed by Dr. K. Ravikumar (Plant Taxonomist). Each sample was assigned a specific laboratory identification number as indicated in  Table 1.