“
“Acoustic prepulse inhibition (PPI) is considered an important biomarker in animal studies of psychosis and a number of psychiatric conditions. Nicotine has been shown to improve acoustic PPI in some animal strains and in humans. However, there is little data on effects of nicotine on acoustic PPI in schizophrenia patients using a double-blind, placebo-controlled study design. The primary aim of the current study was to test the effect of nicotine nasal spray on acoustic PPI in schizophrenia patients. The secondary aim was to test nicotine effect on prepulse facilitation (PPF). The study included 18 schizophrenia patient smokers and 12 healthy

control smokers, tested in a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover, randomized design immediately after nicotine or saline placebo nasal sprays. PPI was tested using 120 ms prepulse-pulse interval. PPF was tested selleck compound using 4500 ms prepulse-pulse interval. The results showed a significant main effect this website of drug on PPI in that nicotine improved PPI compared to placebo (p = 0.008) with no drug by diagnosis interaction (p = 0.90). Improvement in PPI in response to nicotine was significantly correlated with the baseline severity of clinical symptoms (r = 0.59, p = 0.02) in

patients. There was no significant drug or drug by diagnosis interaction for the 4500 ms prepulse-pulse interval condition. However, nicotine improved inhibition in a subgroup of subjects exhibiting PPF (p = 0.002). In conclusion, the findings confirmed that nicotine transiently improves acoustic PPI in schizophrenia patients. Additionally, schizophrenia patients with more clinical symptoms may have benefited more from nicotinic

effect on PPI.”
“The hypothesis of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor hypofunction in schizophrenia was initially based on observations that blockade of the NMDA subtype of glutamate receptor by noncompetitive antagonists, such as phencyclidine and ketamine, can lead to clinical symptoms similar to those present in schizophrenia. Recently, glutamate has also been implicated in the pathophysiology HSP90 of the mood disorders. As impaired NMDA receptor activity may be the result of a primary defect in the NMDA receptors themselves, or secondary to dysfunction in the protein complexes that mediate their signaling, we measured expression of both NMDA subunits and associated postsynaptic density (PSD) proteins (PSD95, neurofilament-light (NF-L), and SAP102) transcripts in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in subjects with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, major depression, and a comparison group using tissue from the Stanley Foundation Neuropathology Consortium.

At 3 months, all the patients were clinically followed up and 14 underwent repeat MRI. 10 patients improved, 1 remained stable and 5 deteriorated. There was worsening with respect to tuberculoma BAY 11-7082 concentration in 3, infarction in

2 and exudate in 1 patient. TNF-alpha was expressed in 32% patients, IL-6, IL-10, IL-1 beta and IL-8 were significantly expressed in patients and declined after 3 months following treatment. The cytokine levels did not correlate with stage of meningitis, outcome and radiological deterioration or improvement. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“The pandemic H1N1 virus of 2009 (2009 H1N1) continues to cause illness worldwide, primarily in younger age groups. To better understand the pathogenesis of these viruses in mammals, we used a mouse model to evaluate the relative virulence MX69 of selected 2009 H1N1 viruses and compared them to a representative human triple-reassortant

swine influenza virus that has circulated in pigs in the United States for over a decade preceding the current pandemic. Additional comparisons were made with the reconstructed 1918 virus, a 1976 H1N1 swine influenza virus, and a highly pathogenic H5N1 virus. Mice were inoculated intranasally with each virus and monitored for morbidity, mortality, viral replication, hemostatic parameters, cytokine production, and lung histology. All 2009 H1N1 viruses replicated efficiently in the lungs of mice and possessed a high degree of infectivity but did not cause lethal disease or exhibit extrapulmonary virus spread. Transient weight loss, lymphopenia, and proinflammatory cytokine and chemokine production were present following 2009 H1N1 virus infection, but these levels were generally muted compared with a triple-reassortant swine virus and the 1918 virus. 2009 H1N1 viruses isolated from fatal cases did not demonstrate enhanced virulence in this model compared with isolates from mild human cases.

Histologically, infection with the 2009 viruses resulted in lesions in the lung varying from mild to second moderate bronchiolitis with occasional necrosis of bronchiolar epithelium and mild to moderate peribronchiolar alveolitis. Taken together, these studies demonstrate that the 2009 H1N1 viruses exhibited mild to moderate virulence in mice compared with highly pathogenic viruses.”
“Multichannel EEG recordings from 18 healthy subjects were used to investigate brain activity in four delta subbands during two mental arithmetic tasks (number comparison and two-digit multiplication) and a control condition. The spatial redistribution of signal-power (SP) was explored based on four consecutives subbands of the delta rhythm. Additionally, network analysis was performed, independently for each subband, and the related graphs reflecting functional connectivity were characterized in terms of local structure (i.e. the clustering coefficient), overall integration (i.e. the path length) and the optimality of network organization (i.e.

However, nuclear translocation of IRF-7 was impaired following HCV infection.

In HCV-infected IHH, IFN-alpha expression initially increased (up to 24 h) and then decreased at later time points, and IFN-alpha-inducible protein 27 was not induced. Interestingly, HCV infection blocked IRF-7 nuclear translocation upon poly(I-C) or IFN-alpha Bindarit treatment of IHH. Together, our data suggest that HCV infection enhances STAT1 expression but impairs nuclear translocation of IRF-7 and its downstream molecules. These impairments in the IFN-alpha signaling pathway may, in part, be responsible for establishment of chronic HCV infection.”
“Ginkgo biloba extract, EGb 761, a popular and standardized natural extract, contains 24% ginkgo-flavonol glycosides and 6% terpene lactones. EGb 761 is used worldwide to treat many ailments, and although a number of studies have shown its neuroprotective properties, the mechanisms of action have not been elucidated fully. We hypothesize that EGb 761 and some of its bioactive components [Bilobalide (BB), Ginkgolide A (GA), Ginkgolide B (GB), and Terpene Free Material QNZ research buy (TFM)] could provide neuroprotection in ischemic conditions through heme oxygenase 1 (HO1). Mice were subjected to permanent distal middle cerebral artery occlusion (pMCAO) and survived for 7 days. HO1 knockout (HO1(-/-)) mice showed significantly

higher (P < 0.05) infarct volume and

Neurologic Deficit Scores (NDS) as compared to their wildtype (WT) counterparts. In another cohort, WT mice subjected to pMCAO and treated at 4 h of pMCAO with 100 mg/kg EGb 761, 6 mg/kg BB, GA, GB, or 10 mg/kg TFM showed significantly lower (P<0.05) infarct volumes (BB; 29.0 +/- 3.9%, GA; 31.3 +/- 4.0%, GB; 32.0 +/- 3.8%, TFM; 32.5 +/- 3.5%, and EGb 761; 27.4 +/- 4.5%) than those in the vehicle-treated those mice (46.0 +/- 3.7%). Similarly, NDS were lower in BB; 7.1 +/- 1.8, GA; 7.4 +/- 2.1, GB; 7.9 +/- 1.8, TFM; 7.7 +/- 1.7, and EGb 761; 6.8 +/- 2.0 groups as compared with the vehicle-treated group (13.8 +/- 1.5). Interestingly, the protective effect of EGb 761 was essentially lost when HO1 knockout mice were treated with EGb 761. In another cohort, HO1, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) protein levels in the brain cortices appeared to be higher in EGb 761 and BB but not in GA, GB and TFM treated groups. Together, these results suggest that HO1 plays, at least in part, an important role in the neuroprotective mechanism of EGb 761 and in delayed ischemia. Targeting this pathway could lead to neuroprotective agents against ischemic stroke. (c) 2011 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“We analyzed the biochemical and ultrastructural properties of hepatitis C virus (HCV) particles produced in cell culture.

PCP would cause apoptosis up-regulating the transcriptional. activity of p53 gene and also increasing their activation

by phosphorylation, concomitant with a decrease in the sirtuin 1 content. In conclusion, acute exposure of CGNs to PCP induces the classical p53 apoptotic pathway, promotes the up-regulation of several genes related to oxidative stress and the over-expression of molecules involved in the cell cycle control. (C) 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.”
“Maternal alcohol abuse during pregnancy can damage the fetal brain and lead to fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). Despite public warnings discouraging alcohol use during pregnancy, many pregnant women continue to drink intermittently because they do not believe that occasional exposures to Selleckchem Poziotinib alcohol can be harmful to a fetus. However, because of genetic differences, some fetuses are much more susceptible than others to alcohol-induced brain injury. Thus, a relatively

mTOR inhibitor low quantity of alcohol that may be innocuous to most fetuses could damage a genetically susceptible fetus. Neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) can protect developing mouse neurons against alcohol toxicity by synthesizing neuroprotective nitric oxide. This study examined whether a single exposure to alcohol, which causes no evident injury in wild type mice, can damage the brains of mice genetically deficient for nNOS (nNOS-/- mice). Wild type and nNOS-/- mice received intraperitoneal injections of alcohol (0.0, 2.2, or 4.4 mg/g body weight) either as a single dose on postnatal day (PD) 4 or as repeated daily doses over PD4-9. Brain volumes and neuronal numbers within the hippocampus and cerebral cortex were determined on PD10. Alcohol exposure on PD4-9 restricted brain growth and caused neuronal death in both strains of mice, but the severity of microencephaly and neuronal loss were more severe in the nNOS-/- mice than in wild type. The 4.4 mg/g alcohol

dose administered on PD4 alone caused significant neuronal loss and microencephaly in the nNOS-/- mice, while this same dose caused no evident injury in the wild type mice. Thus, during development, a single exposure to alcohol can injure a genetically vulnerable brain, while it 4-Aminobutyrate aminotransferase leaves a wild type brain unaffected. Since the genes that confer alcohol resistance and vulnerability in developing humans are unknown, any particular human fetus is potentially vulnerable. Thus, women should be counseled to consume no alcohol during pregnancy. (C) 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.”
“Epidemiologic studies have suggested that organophosphate exposure is associated with an increased risk of depression and suicide. Considering that the neurobiological basis of this association is not well understood, in the present study we evaluated the depressive-like behavior of Swiss mice subchronically exposed to the organophosphate methamidophos at adulthood.

At this concentration, swimming activity was impaired, an effect that persisted past the point where swim bladder inflation became normal; in contrast, general motor function was unaffected.

The early behavioral impairment was then predictive of subsequent decreases in survival. Citarinostat molecular weight Ag(+) is a developmental toxicant at concentrations only slightly above allowable levels. At low concentrations, Ag(+) acts as a neurobehavioral toxicant even in the absence of dysmorphology. (C) 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.”
“Background/Aims: Mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) has been increasingly used for the treatment of lupus nephritis (LN). The aim of this study was to examine the efficacy and safety of MMF used with low doses of corticosteroids as maintenance therapy in patients with LN. Methods: The study covered 35 patients, most of them with proliferative types of LN (5 WHO class III, 26 class IV), while 1 had class V and 3 class VI nephritis. MMF was administered in the dose of 1.5-2 g/24 h and prednisone at 10-20 mg/day. The treatment effects were followed over a 12-month period. Results: After 3 months of therapy significant reduction in proteinuria was selleck screening library achieved (2.1 +/- 2.4 g/24 h vs. 1.0 +/- 1.0 g/24 h, p < 0.01) and maintained to the end of the study. In parallel, a significant rise in serum albumin,

a fall of cholesterol and a significant increase in mean glomerular filtration rate were noted. Complete remission was achieved in 16 patients (45.7%), including all patients in class III and V plus 10 patients in class IV. Not a single adverse effect was observed. Conclusion: MMF combined with low doses of steroids is an effective and safe treatment for the maintenance of stable remission of LN. Copyright (C) 2010 S. Karger AG, Basel”
“Our laboratory studies the effects of in utero opioid exposure on the neonate. In this work we test the effects of chronic in utero exposure to buprenorphine on the neonate. Buprenorphine is a promising candidate for treatment of opioid addiction during pregnancy and it has been suggested to decrease the neonatal

abstinence syndrome in human infants. In our guinea pig model, we focused not only on the respiratory effects of in utero exposure on the neonate, but also studied withdrawal signs in the neonate, a major concern of all opioid however treatment during pregnancy. Pregnant guinea pigs were treated with daily subcutaneous injections of 0.1 mg/kg buprenorphine during the second half of gestation. We measured weight, locomotor activity and respiratory function in pups of ages 3 to 14 days. Respiratory response was recorded using a two-chamber plethysmograph, while pups were breathing either room air or 5% CO(2). Our results show that chronic in utero exposure to buprenorphine induces respiratory effects up to day 14 after birth, while earlier studies have shown that effects of either in utero methadone or morphine only persist in the first week after birth in the guinea pig model.

Paired-label internalization assays using BT474M1 cells and tissue distribution experiments in athymic mice bearing BT474M1 xenografts were performed to compare the two labeled Nb preparations.

Results: The radiochemical yields for Iodogen and [I-131]IB-Mal-D-GEEEK labeling were 83.6 +/- 5.0% (n=10) and 59.6 +/- 9.4% (n = 15), respectively. The immunoreactivity of labeled proteins was preserved as confirmed by in vitro and in vivo binding to tumor cells. Biodistribution studies showed

that Nb radiolabeled using [I-131]IB-Mal-D-GEEEK, compared with the directly labeled Nb, had a higher tumor uptake (4.65 +/- 0.61% ID/g vs. 2.92 +/- 0.24% ID/g at 8 h), faster blood clearance, lower accumulation in non-target

organs except kidneys, and as a result, higher concomitant tumor-to-blood and tumor-to-tissue ratios.

Conclusions: Taken together, these results Cyclosporin A cost demonstrate that 5F7GGC anti-HER2 Nb labeled with residualizing [I-131]IB-Mal-D-GEEEK had better tumor targeting VX-770 manufacturer properties compared to the directly labeled Nb suggesting the potential utility of this Nb conjugate for SPECT (I-129) and PET imaging (I-124) of patients with HER2-expressing tumors. (C) 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.”
“The association between fatigue and reduced activity in the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis has been described. However the temporal association between fatigue and HPA activity is under debate. We examine whether alterations in cortisol secretion play a role in the development of fatigue or whether changes occur later as a consequence of fatigue in a longitudinal cohort study of 4299 community dwelling adults (mean age 61). Cortisol secretion was measured from saliva samples collected waking, waking + 0.5, 2.5, 8, 12 h and bedtime at phase 7 (2003-2004) of the Whitehall II study. Fatigue was measured at phase 6 (2001), phase 7 and phase 8 (2006) of the Whitehall II study. Three elements of secretion were examined: waking cortisol, the cortisol awakening response and diurnal slope in cortisol secretion. Tau-protein kinase Fatigue was determined

using the vitality sub-scale of the Short Form-36. A wide variety of co-variates were measured. We find that fatigue measured at phase 6 was not associated with cortisol secretion at phase 7. At phase 7, low waking cortisol levels and a flat slope in diurnal cortisol secretion were associated with fatigue independently of co-variates. In participants low or free of fatigue at phase 7 low waking cortisol and flatter slope in cortisol secretion were associated with new-onset fatigue at phase 8 (for example, odds ratio for lowest vs. highest tertile of waking cortisol 1.50; 95% confidence intervals, 1.08, 2.09 after adjusting for all co-variates). In conclusion, we find that low waking salivary cortisol and a flat slope in cortisol secretion is associated with fatigue.

The regulation of melatonin by light is well-characterized, but an interesting feature of the daily melatonin rhythm is that its peak occurs near the middle of the night and then levels begin to drop hours before morning light exposure. The mechanism underlying the light-independent drop in melatonin during late night remains unspecified. Feedback control is one mechanism of hormone regulation, but no studies thus far have explored the possibility of such regulation in the pineal of white-footed mice (Peromyscus leucopus). The pineal gland see more and SCN express melatonin receptors, and melatonin regulates its own receptor density in the brain. We investigated

the possibility of feedback control of melatonin by administering melatonin receptor antagonists to female white-footed mice and then measuring plasma melatonin concentrations. In the first experiment, we observed that luzindole, a dual MT1/MT2 receptor antagonist administered 1 h after lights off, caused an increase in plasma melatonin both 1 and 2 find more h later. In a second experiment, we did not observe a change in rnelatonin concentrations following injection of an antagonist specific for the MT2 subtype. These results suggest the possibility of feedback control of melatonin release, occurring preferentially through the MT1 receptor subtype. (C) 2013

Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Fragment complementation has been used to investigate the role of chain connectivity in the catalytic reaction of phosphomannomutase/phosphoglucomutase (PMM/PGM) from Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a human pathogen. A heterodimer of PMM/PGM, created from fragments corresponding to its first three and fourth domains, was constructed and enzyme activity reconstituted. NMR spectra demonstrate that the fragment corresponding to the fourth (C-terminal) domain exists as a highly structured, independent folding domain,

consistent with its varied conformation observed in enzyme-substrate complexes. Steady-state kinetics and thermodynamics studies reported here show that complete conformational freedom of Domain 4, because of the break in the polypeptide chain, is deleterious to catalytic efficiency primarily as a Low-density-lipoprotein receptor kinase consequence of increased entropy. This extends observations from studies of the intact enzyme, which showed that the degree of flexibility of a hinge region is controlled by the precise sequence of amino acids optimized through evolutionary constraints. This work also sheds light on the functional advantage gained by combining separate folding domains into a single polypeptide chain.”
“Drug addicts have severe disruptions in many physiological and behavioral rhythms, such as the sleep/wake cycle. Interestingly, amphetamine, a psychostimulant, is able to alter many circadian patterns, which are independent of the master biological clock located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus.

“
“Tomato ringspot virus (ToRSV), Tobacco ringspot virus see more (TRSV) and Tobacco rattle virus (TRV) are transmitted to healthy plants by viruliferous nematodes in the soil. A method was developed for extraction of genomic viral RNA from virus particles carried within nematodes and a sensitive nested RT-PCR detection assay. The procedure has been adapted to microscale

for handling multiple samples. This assay is effective for detection of ToRSV or TRSV in Xiphinema americanum or TRV in Paratrichodorus allius. With this method, viruses can be detected in nematodes fed on infected plants or from field-collected nematodes where the percentage of viruliferous nematodes is unknown. Soil samples from four red raspberry fields infected with ToRSV were collected in 2003 and 2004. Nematodes isolated R788 from these samples were assayed for ToRSV by RT-PCR and compared to cucumber baiting bioassay for virus transmission from the same soil samples. ToRSV was detected in nematodes throughout the season with similar frequencies by the RT-PCR assay and the transmission bioassay. Published by Elsevier B.V.”
“OBJECTIVE: Tumors within Meckel’s cave are challenging and often require complex approaches. in this report, an expanded endoscopic endonasal approach is reported as a substitute

for or complement to other surgical options for the treatment of various tumors within this region.

METHODS: A database of more than 900 patients Who underwent the expanded endoscopic endonasal approach at the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center from 1998 to March of 2008 were reviewed. From these, only patients who had an endoscopic endonasal approach to Meckel’s cave were considered. The technique uses the maxillary sinus and the pterygopalatine fossa as part of the working corridor. Infraorbital/V(2) and the vidian neurovascular bundles are used as surgical landmarks.

The quadrangular space is opened, which is bound by the internal carotid artery medially and inferiorly, V(2) laterally, and the abducens nerve superiorly. This offers direct access to the anteroinferomedial Dapagliflozin segment of Meckel’s cave, which can be extended through the petrous bone to reach the cerebellopontine angle.

RESULTS: Forty patients underwent an endoscopic endonasal approach to Meckel’s cave. The most frequent abnormalities encountered were adenoid cystic carcinoma, meningioma, and schwannomas, Meckel’s cave and surrounding structures were accessed adequately in all patients. Five patients developed a new facial numbness in at least I segment of the trigeminal nerve, but the deficit was permanent in only 2. Two patients had a transient VIth cranial nerve palsy. Nine patients (30%) showed improvement of preoperative deficits on Cranial Nerves III to VI.

Separate mechanistic steps of directed migration were investigated in confluent murine LA-4 cells exposed to noncytotoxic concentrations (0100 mu g/cm2) of either automobile-emitted diesel exhaust particles (DEPA) or carbon black (CB) particles. A scratch wound model ascertained how DEPA exposure affected directional cell migration and BCECF ratio fluorimetry-monitored intracellular pH (pHi).

Cells were immunostained with giantin to assess cell polarity, Danusertib research buy and with paxillin to assess focal cell adhesions. Cells were immunoblotted for ezrin/radixin/moesin (ERM) to assess cytoskeletal anchoring. Data demonstrate herein that exposure of LA-4 cells to DEPA (but not CB) resulted in delayed directional cell migration, impaired de-adhesion

of the trailing edge cell processes, disrupted regulation of pHi, and altered Golgi polarity of leading edge cells, along with modified focal adhesions and reduced ERM levels, indicative of decreased cytoskeletal anchoring. The ability of DEPA to disrupt directed cell migration at multiple levels suggests that signaling pathways such as ERM/Rho are critical for transduction of ion transport signals into cytoskeletal arrangement BMS-754807 chemical structure responses. These results provide insights into the mechanisms by which chronic exposure to traffic-based emissions may result in decrements in lung capacity.”
“Ras homolog enriched in striatum (Rhes), is a highly conserved small guanosine-5′-triphosphate (GTP) binding protein belonging to the Ras superfamily. Rhes is involved in the dopamine receptor-mediated signaling and behavior though adenylyl cyclase. The striatum-specific GTPase share a close homology with Dexras1, which regulates iron trafficking in the neurons when activated though the post-translational modification called find more s-nitrosylation by

nitric oxide (NO). We report that Rhes physiologically interacted with Peripheral benzodiazepine receptor-associated protein7 and participated in iron uptake via divalent metal transporter 1 similar to Dexras1. Interestingly, Rhes is not S-nitrosylated by NO-treatment, however phosphorylated by protein kinase A at the site of serine-239. Two Rhes mutants – the phosphomimetic form (serine 239 to aspartic acid) and constitutively active form (alanine 173 to valine) displayed an increase in iron uptake compared to the wild-type Rhes. These findings suggest that Rhes may play a crucial role in striatal iron homeostasis. (C) 2013 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Eye pathology other than diseases that affect the cornea and lens are numerous and some of the leading causes are diabetic retinopathy, age-related macular degeneration, retinal detachment, glaucoma, and retinal vascular occlusions.

The visual prosthesis can be divided into non-retinal and retinal approaches. Non-retinal approaches include cortical and optic nerve prosthesis. Retinal approaches are aimed at eye pathologies in which at least part of the optic nerve remains intact whereas when the optic nerve is nearly completely damaged and/or the eye itself

is disfigured or degenerated then a non-retinal approach is warranted. The retinal prosthesis can be placed on the surface of the retina, in the subretinal space or in the suprachoroidal E7080 space.

Results: Several independent groups related variable degrees of success in promoting visual sensations through electrical stimulation of the visual system.

Every technique, equipment and anatomical target has its advantages and disadvantages, and the

biological/electrical-mechanical interface is still the aspect of the research towards a chronic, long term, reliable biomimetic implant.

Conclusions: The visual prostheses have achieved significant developments in recent years. We see continued improvement in selleck chemical visual acuity with increasing number and density of electrodes. Even though the visual acuity is still poor relative to normal vision, these subjects can read letters using their implants. Perhaps more importantly, blind patients can use these devices for mobility and orientation. (C) 2012 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Since their identification in 2005, T helper (Th)17 cells have been proposed to play important roles in several human diseases, including various

autoimmune conditions, allergy, the development and progression of tumors, and the acceptance or rejection of transplanted organs and bone marrow. Ribonuclease Focusing on human studies, here we review recent developments regarding Th17 biology and function in each of these fields. Th17 cells actively participate in the pathogenesis of autoimmune disease, allergy and transplantation rejection. Th17 cells contribute to protective antitumor immunity in human epithelial malignancy, whereas Th17-associated cytokines may also be associated with tumor initiation and growth in the context of chronic inflammation and infection. Also discussed is how the in vivo plasticity of Th17 cells may be an important feature of Th17 cell biology in human disease.”
“The use of animal models (particularly rats) in research for developing drugs for central nervous system diseases is well validated. However a range of strains are often utilised in these models. The Lister-Hooded (LH) strain is beginning to be increasingly used in preclinical investigations.